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Journal of Education for Business

ISSN: 0883-2323 (Print) 1940-3356 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/vjeb20

Learning Lean: A Survey of Industry Lean Needs

Gene Fliedner & Kieran Mathieson

To cite this article: Gene Fliedner & Kieran Mathieson (2009) Learning Lean: A Survey of Industry Lean Needs, Journal of Education for Business, 84:4, 194-199, DOI: 10.3200/ JOEB.84.4.194-199

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.84.4.194-199

Published online: 07 Aug 2010.

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ABSTRACT.

R

ean,฀or฀waste฀reduction฀efforts,฀has฀ been฀a฀prominent฀business฀strategy฀ in฀ the฀ past฀ two฀ decades฀ (Ohno,฀ 1988;฀ Standard฀ &฀ Davis,฀ 1999;฀ Womack,฀ Jones,฀ &฀ Roos,฀ 1990).฀ Lean฀ practices฀ are฀ found฀ in฀ service฀ and฀ manufactur-ing฀firms,฀small฀and฀large฀business,฀and฀ for-profit฀ and฀ nonprofit฀ organizations฀ (Ohno).฀ A฀ driving฀ force฀ behind฀ many฀ Lean฀ initiatives฀ is฀ globalization,฀ which฀ has฀reduced฀producers’฀control฀over฀pric-es.฀Cooper฀(2007)฀stated,฀“Intensification฀ of฀ competitive฀ forces฀ limits฀ the฀ ability฀ of฀ companies฀ to฀ simply฀ mark฀ up฀ prices฀ based฀ on฀ cost฀ increases.฀ It฀ has฀ made฀ cost฀ control,฀ rather฀ than฀ pricing฀ power,฀ the฀driving฀force฀behind฀corporate฀profit฀ margins฀ and฀ earnings฀ growth”฀ (p.฀ 25).฀ Businesses฀ must฀ increasingly฀ rely฀ on฀ cost฀ cutting,฀ waste฀ elimination,฀ produc- tivity฀improvement,฀and฀quality฀enhance-ment฀ as฀ strategic฀ means฀ to฀ achieving฀ profit฀ objectives.฀ Lean฀ methods฀ address฀ these฀ concerns฀ and฀ do฀ work฀ (Clanton,฀ 2004).฀ Furthermore,฀ there฀ is฀ a฀ growing฀ need฀for฀employees฀to฀participate฀in฀and฀ lead฀ the฀ necessary฀ changes฀ to฀ existing฀ business฀cultures,฀operating฀systems,฀and฀ practices฀ to฀ (a)฀ cut฀ costs,฀ (b)฀ eliminate฀ waste,฀and฀(c)฀improve฀productivity฀and฀ quality฀(Drickhamer,฀2004).

Lean฀ is฀ not฀ widespread฀ in฀ higher฀ education฀ curricula.฀ Stand-alone฀ Lean฀ classes฀are฀rare.฀Lean฀is฀normally฀found฀ in฀operations฀management฀or฀engineer-ing฀ courses,฀ which฀ are฀ not฀

multidisci-plinary฀and฀do฀not฀attract฀many฀students฀ outside฀the฀two฀disciplines.฀Consequent-ly,฀the฀majority฀of฀students฀leave฀higher฀ education฀ with฀ little฀ understanding฀ of฀ Lean.฀ Subsequent฀ to฀ graduation,฀ many฀ organizations฀ invest฀ a฀ large฀ amount฀ of฀ time฀ and฀ money฀ to฀ educate฀ and฀ train฀ employees฀in฀Lean฀(Standard฀&฀Davis,฀ 1999).฀ Universities฀ could฀ help฀ compa-nies฀avoid฀some฀of฀this฀expense.฀

In฀August฀of฀2005,฀academicians฀and฀ practitioners฀ met฀ at฀ a฀ seminar฀ at฀ Ohio฀ State฀University฀where฀they฀created฀the฀ Lean฀ Education฀ Academic฀ Network฀ (LEAN),฀ a฀ group฀ of฀ university฀ tors฀ seeking฀ to฀ promote฀ Lean฀ educa-tion฀ in฀ U.S.฀ higher฀ academia.฀ LEAN฀ also฀ works฀ to฀ improve฀ Lean฀ education฀ through฀shared฀knowledge฀and฀teaching฀ materials,฀ collaboration,฀ and฀ network-ing฀among฀colleagues.฀LEAN฀members฀ at฀the฀initial฀meeting฀agreed฀that฀univer-sities฀should฀learn฀what฀industry฀wants฀ graduates฀to฀know฀about฀Lean.฀Industry฀ participants฀ at฀ the฀ seminar฀ highlight-ed฀ the฀ importance฀ of฀ academic฀ curri-cula฀ maintaining฀ a฀ constant฀ awareness฀ of฀ current฀ industry฀ needs.฀ The฀ present฀ study฀is฀a฀step฀to฀that฀end.฀

Research฀Methodology

We฀ conducted฀ a฀Web-based฀ survey฀ to฀ better฀provide฀universities฀with฀an฀under-standing฀of฀industry฀needs฀regarding฀Lean.฀ In฀the฀beginning,฀we฀circulated฀a฀pilot฀sur-vey฀to฀15฀practitioners฀chosen฀by฀industry฀

Learning฀Lean:฀A฀Survey฀of฀Industry฀฀

Lean฀Needs

GENE฀FLIEDNER฀ KIERAN฀MATHIESON฀ OAKLAND฀UNIVERSITY฀ ROCHESTER,฀MICHIGAN

L

ABSTRACT.฀The฀authors฀examined฀ business฀practitioners’฀preferences฀for฀ higher฀education฀curricula฀design฀in฀gen-eral฀and฀for฀what฀graduates฀should฀know฀ about฀Lean,฀or฀waste-reduction฀efforts.฀The฀ authors฀conducted฀a฀Web-based฀survey฀ and฀found฀that฀practitioners฀are฀not฀as฀con-cerned฀about฀graduates’฀possessing฀specific฀ technical฀skills฀as฀they฀are฀about฀them฀pos-sessing฀a฀systems฀view฀of฀organizations฀and฀ value฀streams.฀The฀survey฀findings฀suggest฀ several฀implications฀for฀undergraduate฀and฀ graduate฀business฀school฀curriculum฀design,฀ Lean฀education,฀and฀a฀broader฀systems฀ approach฀to฀professional฀education.

Keywords:฀business฀school฀curricula฀ design,฀Lean

Copyright฀©฀2009฀Heldref฀Publications

representatives฀at฀the฀first฀LEAN฀meeting.฀ We฀refined฀the฀survey฀on฀the฀basis฀of฀their฀ feedback.฀We฀then฀created฀the฀Web-based฀ version฀of฀the฀refined฀survey.

We฀ distributed฀ the฀ refined฀Web-based฀ survey฀ with฀ the฀ assistance฀ of฀ the฀ Lean฀ Learning฀Center฀in฀Novi,฀Michigan,฀and฀ the฀Web฀site฀www.Superfactory.com.฀The฀ Lean฀Learning฀Center฀provides฀Lean฀cur-ricula฀ for฀ industry฀ professional฀ develop-ment.฀It฀placed฀a฀participation฀invitation฀ in฀ its฀ electronic฀ newsletter,฀ which฀ was฀ sent฀to฀approximately฀2,000฀opt-in฀e-mail฀ addresses.฀ The฀ number฀ of฀ people฀ who฀ actually฀read฀the฀newsletter฀is฀unknown.฀ Superfactory.com,฀which฀focuses฀on฀help-ing฀ readers฀ achieve฀ manufacturSuperfactory.com,฀which฀focuses฀on฀help-ing฀ and฀ enterprise฀ excellence,฀ invited฀ industry฀ participants฀with฀a฀posting฀on฀its฀Web฀site฀ and฀a฀note฀in฀its฀monthly฀electronic฀news-letter.฀Superfactory.com฀claims฀more฀than฀ 45,000฀ opt-in฀ subscribers.฀ However,฀ the฀ number฀of฀people฀who฀saw฀the฀Web฀post-ing฀or฀newsletter฀announcement฀was฀also฀ unknown.฀ The฀ fraction฀ of฀ those฀ readers฀ who฀were฀interested฀in฀Lean,฀as฀opposed฀ to฀ some฀ other฀ aspect฀ of฀ Superfactory. com’s฀ coverage,฀ was฀ also฀ unknown.฀ A฀ 2-week฀ window฀ was฀ allowed฀ for฀฀ participant฀responses.

The฀actual฀survey฀response฀rate฀to฀the฀ refined฀ survey฀ could฀ not฀ be฀ computed฀ because฀ of฀ the฀ method฀ of฀ distribution.฀ However,฀there฀is฀little฀doubt฀that฀it฀was฀ low.฀ In฀ all,฀ we฀ received฀ 45฀ completed฀ surveys.฀Therefore,฀we฀do฀not฀claim฀that฀ the฀sample฀received฀is฀representative฀of฀ Lean฀ practitioners.฀ It฀ may฀ be฀ that฀ only฀ those฀ who฀ were฀ particularly฀ interested฀ in฀ Lean฀ education฀ responded฀ and฀ that฀ they฀are฀somehow฀different฀from฀others.฀ People฀ were฀ able฀ to฀ respond฀ anony-mously฀ or฀ were฀ given฀ the฀ option฀ to฀ provide฀ an฀ e-mail฀ address฀ to฀ receive฀ a฀ complimentary฀copy฀of฀the฀results.฀

For฀ the฀ survey,฀ we฀ used฀ rank฀ order฀ scores฀ and฀ a฀ 7-point฀ Likert-type฀ scale฀ ranging฀from฀1฀(very฀important)฀to฀7฀(very฀ unimportant)฀ to฀ solicit฀ responses฀ from฀ participants฀ about฀ the฀ degree฀ of฀ impor- tance฀of฀a฀variety฀of฀Lean฀skills,฀knowl-edge฀areas,฀concepts,฀and฀tools.฀We฀used฀ parametric฀ and฀ nonparametric฀ statistical฀ analyses฀to฀examine฀response฀differences.

Survey฀Design

After฀collecting฀some฀initial฀demo-graphic฀data,฀the฀first฀part฀of฀the฀survey฀

asked฀ participants฀ to฀ rank฀ in฀ order฀ of฀ most฀ important฀ (low฀ score)฀ to฀ least฀ important฀ (high฀ score)฀ 10฀ broadly฀ identified฀areas฀of฀Lean฀skills,฀knowl-edge,฀ and฀ expertise.฀ On฀ the฀ basis฀ of฀ pilot฀ study฀ results฀ and฀ anecdotal฀ evi-dence฀ from฀ conversations฀ with฀ prac-titioners,฀ these฀ 10฀ areas฀ were฀ chosen฀ because฀ of฀ their฀ importance฀ as฀ key฀ building฀ blocks฀ that฀ were฀ desirable฀ for฀ graduating฀ students฀ to฀ possess฀ to฀ make฀ a฀ quick฀ contribution฀ to฀ a฀ Lean฀ program.฀Rank฀orders฀were฀requested฀ because฀ each฀ of฀ these฀ items฀ poten-tially฀represented฀a฀significant฀amount฀ of฀course฀content.฀It฀may฀not฀be฀pos-sible฀ to฀ include฀ all฀ 10฀ of฀ these฀ broad฀ areas฀ in฀ a฀ single,฀ semester-long฀ Lean฀ course.฀The฀relative฀nature฀of฀the฀rank-ings฀should฀better฀enable฀educators฀to฀ prioritize฀course฀content.

In฀ the฀ second฀ part฀ of฀ the฀ survey,฀ we฀ asked฀ participants฀ about฀ a฀ variety฀ of฀ skills฀ in฀ three฀ more฀ specific฀ Lean฀ skill฀ sets฀ relating฀ to฀ particular฀ business฀ dis-ciplines:฀ (a)฀ financial฀ and฀ accounting฀ skills;฀ (b)฀ human฀ relations฀ skills;฀ and฀ (c)฀engineering,฀operations,฀and฀market-ing฀ skills.฀ These฀ more฀ specific฀ Lean฀ skill฀ sets฀ may฀ be฀ viewed฀ as฀ traditional฀ programs฀ of฀ study฀ (majors)฀ commonly฀ found฀in฀higher฀education.฀In฀addition฀to฀ rank฀ ordering,฀ participants฀ were฀ asked฀ to฀use฀a฀fine-grained฀Likert-type฀(FGL)฀ scale฀to฀indicate฀the฀absolute฀importance฀ of฀ Lean฀ skills฀ in฀ each฀ of฀ these฀ three฀ sets.฀ Traditional฀ coarse-grained฀ Likert-type฀scales฀force฀respondents฀to฀choose฀ among฀ distinctive฀ anchor฀ points,฀ usu-ally฀five฀or฀seven.฀An฀FGL฀scale฀allows฀ participants฀to฀select฀values฀between฀the฀ anchor฀ points.฀ Mathieson฀ and฀ Doane฀ (2005)฀found฀that฀analyses฀of฀data฀gath- ered฀using฀FGL฀scales฀are฀more฀statisti-cally฀ powerful฀ than฀ analyses฀ of฀ data฀ gathered฀ using฀ coarse-grained฀ scales.฀ Throughout฀the฀present฀study,฀the฀FGL฀ scale฀ranged฀from฀1฀(very฀important)฀to฀ 7฀(very฀unimportant).

The฀final฀portion฀of฀the฀survey฀asked฀ participants฀to฀indicate฀the฀importance฀ of฀a฀variety฀of฀specific฀Lean฀concepts฀ and฀ tools฀ commonly฀ examined฀ in฀ existing฀ college฀ curricula.฀ Both฀ rank-ings฀ and฀ an฀ FGL฀ scale฀ were฀ used฀ to฀ solicit฀participant฀views฀of฀the฀impor-tance฀of฀these฀specific฀Lean฀concepts฀ and฀tools.

RESULTS

Because฀ Lean฀ is฀ applicable฀ in฀ small฀ and฀ large฀ service฀ and฀ manufacturing฀ organizations,฀ we฀ collected฀ demo-graphic฀ data฀ concerning฀ job฀ titles฀ and฀ organization฀ sizes.฀ Survey฀ respondents฀ held฀ a฀ broad฀ range฀ of฀ job฀ positions฀ in฀ companies฀ of฀ varying฀ sizes฀ and฀ types.฀ The฀ diversity฀ in฀ job฀ positions฀ includ-ed฀ 28฀ different฀ job฀ titles฀ ranging฀ from฀ presidents฀ to฀ various฀ types฀ of฀ manag-ers฀including฀plant,฀general,฀production,฀ inventory฀control,฀systems,฀information฀ technology,฀ sales,฀ and฀ supply฀ chain.฀ Other฀ job฀ titles฀ included฀ public฀ infor- mation฀coordinator฀and฀union฀represen-tative.฀The฀range฀of฀company฀sizes฀and฀ types฀is฀shown฀in฀Table฀1.฀We฀received฀ most฀ responses฀ from฀ people฀ in฀ manu-facturing฀companies.฀Nearly฀half฀of฀the฀ responses฀ were฀ from฀ people฀ working฀ for฀ companies฀ with฀ more฀ than฀ 1,000฀ employees.

The฀ median฀ rank฀ values฀ for฀ the฀ 10฀ broadly฀ identified฀ areas฀ of฀ Lean฀ skills,฀ knowledge,฀and฀expertise฀are฀shown฀in฀ Table฀ 2.฀ No฀ area฀ was฀ more฀ important฀ than฀that฀of฀systems฀planning฀and฀think-ing.฀This฀ result฀ is฀ consistent฀ with฀ con-versations฀ with฀ practitioners.฀ Compa-nies฀ that฀ have฀ implemented฀ successful฀ Lean฀ programs฀ have฀ commonly฀ taken฀ into฀account฀the฀entire฀enterprise,฀from฀ supplier฀to฀customer,฀and฀everything฀in฀ between฀(Yamada฀&฀Tracey,฀2005).฀

The฀ respondents฀ also฀ perceived฀ the฀ areas฀ of฀ Human฀ relations฀ skills฀ and฀ Lean฀ culture฀ to฀ be฀ important,฀ with฀ median฀ ranks฀ of฀ 3฀ and฀ 5,฀ respectively.฀ Lean฀ implementations฀ often฀ change฀

TABLE฀1.฀Number฀of฀Responses,฀ by฀Type฀and฀Size฀of฀Organization฀

฀ Number฀of

Variable฀ responses

Organization฀type

฀฀฀Service฀ 11 ฀฀฀Manufacturing฀ 30 ฀฀฀Government฀ 4 Number฀of฀employees

฀฀฀1–50฀ 5

฀฀฀51–100฀ 5

฀฀฀101–150฀ 0

฀฀฀151–500฀ 9

฀฀฀501–1,000฀ 4 ฀฀฀>฀1,000฀ 22

companies,฀ threatening฀ (or฀ appearing฀ to฀ threaten)฀ both฀ corporate฀ culture฀ and฀ customary฀ ways฀ of฀ conducting฀ work.฀ Leadership฀ and฀ change-management฀ skills,฀ therefore,฀ command฀ a฀ premium.฀ The฀ Society฀ of฀ Automotive฀ Engineers฀ International฀ (1999)฀ noted฀ that฀ Lean฀ is฀ primarily฀ about฀ management,฀ workers,฀ and฀the฀trust฀that฀binds฀the฀two,฀and฀that฀ these฀are฀the฀most฀important฀elements฀of฀ a฀ Lean฀ system.฀ This฀ point฀ underscores฀ the฀importance฀of฀human฀relations฀skills฀ for฀any฀Lean฀program.฀

The฀ respondents฀ also฀ viewed฀ the฀ areas฀of฀real-world฀business฀knowledge฀ and฀ experience฀ to฀ be฀ important.฀ Prac-titioners฀ seek฀ potential฀ employees฀ who฀ can฀ make฀ a฀ quick฀ contribution.฀ It฀ is฀ commonly฀ argued฀ that฀ learning฀ is฀ best฀ derived฀from฀personal฀experience.฀This฀ sentiment฀is฀echoed฀by฀the฀median฀rank฀ value฀of฀3.5฀for฀the฀areas฀of฀real-world฀ business฀knowledge฀and฀experience,฀as฀ shown฀in฀Table฀2.

One฀common฀form฀of฀waste฀that฀Lean฀ program฀administrators฀try฀to฀eliminate฀ is฀the฀production฀of฀defects.฀In฀light฀of฀ this฀ observation,฀ it฀ is฀ interesting฀ that฀ the฀areas฀of฀quality฀and฀other฀systems-improvement฀ methodologies฀ had฀ the฀ least฀important฀ranking.

We฀ performed฀ a฀ Friedman฀ rank฀ test฀ of฀the฀participants’฀rank฀orders฀for฀these฀ 10฀ broadly฀ identified฀ areas฀ of฀ Lean฀ to฀

ascertain฀ whether฀ the฀ rank฀ values฀ rep- resent฀a฀statistical฀difference.฀The฀criti-cal฀ test฀ value฀ was฀ 16.919,฀ using฀ a฀ .05฀ level฀ of฀ significance฀ with฀ 9฀ degrees฀ of฀ freedom.฀The฀calculated฀test฀statistic฀of฀ 85.475฀indicated฀a฀significant฀degree฀of฀ differences฀ in฀ the฀ relative฀ importance฀ among฀these฀skills.

After฀ being฀ asked฀ about฀ the฀ 10฀ gen-eral฀skill฀areas,฀respondents฀were฀asked฀ about฀ three฀ more฀ specific,฀ discipline- related฀skill฀sets.฀The฀FGL฀means,฀stan-dard฀deviations,฀and฀median฀rank฀values฀ for฀ the฀ first฀ of฀ these฀ discipline-specific฀ sets,฀ Lean฀ financial฀ and฀ accounting฀ skills,฀are฀shown฀in฀Table฀3.฀Both฀met-rics,฀FGL฀score฀means฀and฀median฀rank฀

values,฀demonstrated฀a฀reasonable฀level฀ of฀consistency.฀Score฀standard฀deviation฀ values฀ are฀ reported฀ to฀ allow฀ the฀ reader฀ to฀infer฀the฀extent฀of฀consistency฀among฀ the฀participants’฀FGL฀score฀values.฀

From฀ the฀ survey฀ results,฀ we฀ ascer-tained฀that฀the฀most฀important฀item฀was฀ enterprise฀ view฀ of฀ money,฀ which฀ had฀ the฀ lowest฀ mean฀ FGL฀ score฀ and฀ low-est฀ median฀ rank.฀ (Lower฀ values฀ mean฀ higher฀ importance.)฀ This฀ echoes฀ the฀ systems฀planning฀and฀thinking฀concept.฀ The฀skill฀rated฀as฀second฀most฀important฀ was฀the฀understanding฀of฀the฀time฀value฀฀ of฀money.

We฀ conducted฀ a฀ one-way฀ analysis฀ of฀ variance฀ (ANOVA)฀ with฀ the฀ relatively฀ small฀level฀of฀differences฀among฀the฀FGL฀ scores฀of฀these฀particular฀skills.฀The฀criti-cal฀ value฀ of฀ the฀ test฀ was฀ 2.13,฀ with฀ the฀ seven฀ skill฀ items฀ and฀ 6฀ degrees฀ of฀ free-dom.฀We฀calculated฀F฀to฀be฀2.70฀and฀p฀to฀ be฀.01,฀indicating฀a฀high฀degree฀of฀signifi-cant฀differences฀among฀these฀skills.฀

Similarly,฀a฀nonparametric฀Friedman฀ rank฀test฀of฀the฀rank฀orders฀for฀the฀seven฀ financial฀and฀accounting฀skills฀was฀con-ducted฀using฀a฀.05฀level฀of฀significance฀ to฀ better฀ understand฀ whether฀ the฀ rank฀ values฀ represented฀ a฀ statistical฀ differ-ence.฀The฀critical฀value฀of฀this฀test฀was฀ 12.59.฀We฀calculated฀the฀test฀statistic฀to฀ be฀13.96,฀indicating฀a฀significant฀degree฀ of฀ difference฀ among฀ the฀ participants’฀ rankings฀for฀this฀skill฀set.฀These฀results฀ suggest฀that฀survey฀participants฀regard-ed฀the฀enterprise฀view฀of฀money฀as฀the฀ most฀important฀skill฀and฀activity-based฀ costing฀as฀the฀least฀important.

The฀ results฀ for฀ the฀ second฀ of฀ the฀ three฀ discipline-related฀ skill฀ sets,฀

TABLE฀2.฀Median฀Rank฀Values฀of฀Ten฀Broadly฀Identified฀Areas฀of฀Lean฀ Skills,฀Knowledge,฀and฀Expertise

Broadly฀identified฀area฀ Mdn฀rank฀value

฀ 1.฀ Systems฀planning฀and฀thinking฀฀ 3.0 ฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀seeing฀the฀business฀as฀a฀value฀stream)

฀ 2.฀ Human฀relations฀skills฀฀ 3.0

฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀leadership,฀change฀management,฀team฀problem฀solving)

฀ 3.฀ Real-world฀business฀knowledge฀and฀experience฀฀ 3.5 ฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀internships,฀job฀experience)

฀ 4.฀ Lean฀culture฀฀ 5.0

฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀kaizen,฀plan-do-check-act,฀5S฀or฀visual฀management)

฀ 5.฀ Lean฀principles,฀terminology,฀and฀tools฀฀ 5.0 ฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀pull,฀takt,฀single฀minute฀exchange฀of฀die,฀one-piece฀flow)

฀ 6.฀ Stability฀and฀variance฀reduction฀฀ 6.0 ฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀six฀Sigma,฀standardized฀work,฀talking฀points฀memo)

฀ 7.฀ Financial฀and฀accounting฀knowledge฀฀ 7.0 ฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀cash฀flow,฀working฀capital,฀return฀on฀net฀assets)

฀ 8.฀ Delivery฀฀ 7.0

฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀time-to-market฀and฀lead-time฀reduction,฀closed฀loop฀design)฀

฀ 9.฀ Safety฀ 8.0

฀10.฀ Quality฀and฀other฀systems฀improvement฀methodologies฀฀ 8.0 ฀ ฀ ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀Malcolm฀Baldrige)

TABLE฀3.฀Lean฀Financial฀and฀Accounting฀Skills

฀ Scale฀point

Skill฀ M฀ SD฀ Mdn฀rank฀value

Enterprise฀(total฀company)฀view฀of฀money฀ 2.51฀ 0.81฀ 3

Time฀value฀of฀money฀ 2.63฀ 1.00฀ 3

First฀in,฀first฀out฀ 2.70฀ 1.21฀ 4

Cash฀flow฀ 2.98฀ 1.09฀ 4

Working฀capital฀ 3.08฀ 0.78฀ 5

Return฀on฀net฀assets฀ 3.11฀ 1.25฀ 4

Activity-based฀costing฀ 3.25฀ 1.49฀ 6

Note.฀Responses฀are฀from฀a฀7-point,฀fine-grained฀Likert-type฀scale฀ranging฀from฀1฀( most฀impor-tant)฀to฀7฀(least฀important).฀

human฀ relations฀ skills,฀ are฀ shown฀ in฀ Table฀ 4.฀ Again,฀ there฀ was฀ much฀ con-sistency฀ between฀ the฀ participants’฀ rank฀ order฀ and฀ FGL฀ scores.฀ Leader-ship฀ skills฀ was฀ ranked฀ as฀ the฀ most฀ important฀item฀by฀both฀the฀FGL฀mean฀ score฀ and฀ median฀ rank฀ value.฀ Team-work฀ skills฀ was฀ next฀ on฀ both฀ met-rics.฀ The฀ items฀ basic฀ problem฀ solving฀ skills,฀team฀problem฀solving฀skills,฀and฀ change฀ management฀ followed฀ closely.฀ Negotiation฀and฀conflict฀resolution฀was฀ seen฀as฀the฀least฀important฀item฀in฀this฀ skill฀ set฀ when฀ measured฀ by฀ the฀ FGL฀ and฀median฀rankings.

We฀ calculated฀ a฀ one-way฀ ANOVA฀ among฀ the฀ FGL฀ scores฀ of฀ these฀ eight฀ particular฀ skills.฀ The฀ critical฀ value฀ of฀ the฀ test฀ was฀ 2.04฀ for฀ the฀ 7฀ degrees฀ of฀ freedom,฀F฀ was฀ calculated฀ to฀ be฀ 1.98฀฀ (p฀ >฀ .05,฀ns).฀ Range฀ truncation฀ may฀ explain฀ this฀ because฀ two฀ of฀ the฀ FGL฀ score฀ means฀ were฀ within฀ 1฀ standard฀ deviation,฀and฀several฀others฀were฀close฀ to฀ 1฀ standard฀ deviation฀ of฀ the฀ end฀ of฀฀ the฀scale.

We฀ conducted฀ a฀ Friedman฀ rank฀ test฀ of฀the฀median฀rank฀orders฀for฀the฀eight฀ skills฀ using฀ a฀ .05฀ level฀ of฀ significance.฀ The฀critical฀value฀of฀this฀test฀was฀14.07.฀ We฀ calculated฀ the฀ test฀ statistic฀ to฀ be฀ 38.11,฀indicating฀a฀significant฀degree฀of฀ difference฀among฀the฀participants’฀rank-ings฀for฀this฀skill฀set.฀

Overall,฀ the฀ evidence฀ suggests฀ that฀ there฀ are฀ significant฀ differences฀ in฀ the฀ ratings,฀ so฀ that฀ leadership฀ skills฀ were฀ perceived฀ to฀ be฀ more฀ important฀ than฀ negotiation฀ and฀ conflict฀ resolution.฀ It฀ is฀ interesting฀ that฀ the฀ skill฀ viewed฀ as฀ least฀ important฀ in฀ this฀ set฀ (negotiation฀ and฀ conflict฀ resolution,฀ with฀ a฀ mean฀ FGL฀ score฀ of฀ 2.17฀ [SD฀ =฀ 0.87])฀ was฀ perceived฀to฀be฀more฀important฀than฀the฀ most฀important฀skill฀in฀the฀financial฀and฀ accounting฀skills฀set฀(enterprise฀view฀of฀ money,฀with฀a฀mean฀FGL฀score฀of฀2.51฀ [SD฀=฀0.81]).฀

The฀FGL฀means,฀standard฀deviations,฀ and฀median฀rank฀values฀for฀the฀third฀dis-cipline-related฀ skill฀ set—engineering,฀ operations,฀ and฀ marketing฀ skills—are฀ shown฀in฀Table฀5.฀There฀were฀differenc-es฀ in฀ the฀ FGL฀ scorshown฀in฀Table฀5.฀There฀were฀differenc-es฀ and฀ rank฀ results.฀ However,฀if฀the฀skills฀are฀split฀into฀two฀ roughly฀ equal-sized฀ sets฀ (high฀ impor-tance฀ and฀ low฀ importance),฀ then฀ skills฀ rated฀ as฀ high฀ importance฀ by฀ the฀ FGL฀

scales฀ were฀ also฀ rated฀ as฀ high฀ impor-tance฀by฀the฀rank฀values,฀and฀skills฀rated฀ as฀low฀importance฀by฀the฀FGL฀were฀also฀ rated฀as฀low฀importance฀by฀the฀rank฀val-ues.฀Standardization฀received฀the฀lowest฀ mean฀ FGL฀ rating,฀ followed฀ by฀ vari-ance฀ reduction.฀ The฀ item฀ most฀ similar฀ to฀ a฀ systems฀ view,฀ process฀ thinking,฀ received฀the฀lowest฀median฀ranking,฀fol-lowed฀ by฀ translating฀ customer฀ require-ments฀into฀specifications.฀We฀conducted฀ an฀ ANOVA฀ among฀ the฀ FGL฀ scores฀ of฀ these฀skills.฀The฀critical฀value฀of฀the฀test฀ was฀1.71,฀with฀the฀15฀skill฀items฀com-prising฀ the฀ comparative฀ analysis฀ and฀ 14฀ degrees฀ of฀ freedom.฀ We฀ calculated฀

F฀ to฀ be฀ 6.79฀ (p฀ <฀.0001),฀ indicating฀ significant฀ differences.฀ However,฀ this฀ result฀is฀suspect,฀with฀the฀large฀number฀ of฀skills฀in฀the฀engineering,฀operations,฀ and฀ marketing฀ skill฀ set฀ relative฀ to฀ the฀ sample฀ size.฀ (There฀ are฀ approximately฀ twice฀ as฀ many฀ skills฀ in฀ this฀ set฀ as฀ in฀ the฀financial฀and฀accounting฀and฀human฀ relations฀skills฀sets.)฀We฀also฀conducted฀ a฀Friedman฀rank฀test฀of฀the฀median฀rank฀ orders฀for฀the฀15฀skills฀using฀a฀.05฀level฀ of฀ significance.฀ The฀ critical฀ value฀ of฀ this฀ test฀ was฀ 23.69.฀ We฀ calculated฀ the฀ test฀statistic฀to฀be฀113.83.฀This฀suggests฀ there฀are฀differences฀among฀the฀partici-pants’฀rankings฀for฀this฀skill฀set.

TABLE฀4.฀Human฀Relations฀Skills

฀ Scale฀point

Skill฀ M฀ SD฀ Mdn฀rank฀value

Leadership฀฀ 1.67฀ 0.62฀ 2.00

Teamwork฀ 1.69฀ 0.82฀ 3.00

Basic฀problem฀solving฀฀ 1.77฀ 0.71฀ 4.50 Team฀problem฀solving฀฀ 1.79฀ 0.90฀ 4.75

Change฀management฀ 1.79฀ 0.69฀ 5.50

Interpersonal฀฀ 1.88฀ 0.66฀ 4.00

Logical฀thinking฀ 1.89฀ 0.67฀ 5.00

Negotiation฀and฀conflict฀ 2.17฀ 0.87฀ 6.00 ฀฀฀resolution฀

Note.฀Responses฀are฀from฀a฀7-point,฀fine-grained฀Likert-type฀scale฀ranging฀from฀1฀( most฀impor-tant)฀to฀7฀(least฀important).฀

TABLE฀5.฀Engineering,฀Operations,฀and฀Marketing฀Skills

฀ Scale฀point

Skill฀ M฀ SD฀ Mdn฀rank฀value

Standardization฀ 1.76฀ 0.65฀ 4.50

Variance฀or฀variance฀reduction฀ 1.94฀ 0.59฀ 7.50 Ability฀to฀assess฀delivered฀value฀to฀customer฀ 2.10฀ 0.78฀ 5.00

Process฀thinking฀ 2.19฀ 0.83฀ 2.50

Translating฀customer฀requirements฀into฀ 2.20฀ 0.96฀ 3.75 ฀฀฀specifications

Process฀design฀ 2.49฀ 0.99฀ 5.50

Lean฀product฀design฀and฀development฀time฀ 2.50฀ 1.00฀ 6.50

Cellular฀layouts฀ 2.52฀ 0.96฀ 13.00

General฀statistical฀analysis฀ 2.62฀ 0.86฀ 11.00 Lean฀product฀design฀and฀development฀costs฀ 2.66฀ 0.87฀ 7.50

Debugging฀ 2.73฀ 0.95฀ 10.00

Automation฀ 2.77฀ 1.19฀ 10.00

Statistical฀process฀control฀ 2.81฀ 1.05฀ 12.00

Pilot฀testing฀ 2.88฀ 0.93฀ 10.00

Prototyping฀ 3.13฀ 0.98฀ 11.00

Note.฀Responses฀are฀from฀a฀7-point,฀fine-grained฀Likert-type฀scale฀ranging฀from฀1฀( most฀impor-tant)฀to฀7฀(least฀important).฀

In฀ the฀ last฀ part฀ of฀ the฀ survey,฀ we฀ asked฀participants฀to฀indicate฀the฀impor-tance฀ of฀ some฀ Lean-specific฀ concepts฀ and฀ tools.฀ The฀ FGL฀ means,฀ standard฀ deviations,฀ and฀ median฀ rank฀ value฀ results฀are฀shown฀in฀Table฀6.฀Standard-ization฀of฀work฀processes฀was฀perceived฀ as฀ important,฀ which฀ is฀ consistent฀ with฀ the฀ standardization฀ item฀ in฀ the฀ engi-neering,฀ operations,฀ marketing฀ skill฀ set฀ (see฀Table฀5).฀The฀item฀value฀stream฀or฀ process฀ mapping,฀ which฀ emphasizes฀ a฀ systems฀ viewpoint฀ of฀ processes฀ across฀ a฀ supply฀ chain,฀ was฀ also฀ important.฀ Value฀ stream฀ mapping฀ is฀ a฀ technique฀ that฀operationalizes฀the฀whole-firm฀con-cept.฀We฀conducted฀a฀one-way฀ANOVA฀฀ among฀ the฀ FGL฀ scores฀ of฀ these฀ Lean฀ concepts฀and฀tools.฀The฀critical฀value฀of฀ the฀ test฀ was฀ 1.62,฀ with฀ 19฀ items฀ com-prising฀the฀comparative฀analysis฀and฀18฀ degrees฀of฀freedom.฀We฀calculated฀F฀to฀ be฀3.18฀(p฀<฀.0001),฀ indicating฀a฀signifi-cant฀degree฀of฀differences.฀This฀too฀may฀ be฀ explained฀ by฀ the฀ important฀ differ-ences฀or฀by฀the฀large฀number฀of฀items.฀ We฀also฀conducted฀a฀Friedman฀rank฀test฀

of฀ the฀ median฀ rank฀ orders฀ for฀ the฀ 19฀ items฀ using฀ a฀ .05฀ level฀ of฀ significance.฀ The฀critical฀value฀of฀this฀test฀was฀28.87.฀ We฀ calculated฀ the฀ test฀ statistic฀to฀ be฀ 100.33.฀This฀suggests฀significant฀differ-ences฀ among฀ the฀ participants’฀ rankings฀ for฀ this฀ skill฀ set.฀ The฀ quality-related฀ items฀ (familiarity฀ with฀ complementary฀ quality฀ and฀ productivity฀ programs฀ and฀ statistical฀ process฀ control฀ tools)฀ were฀ perceived฀to฀be฀less฀important.฀The฀same฀ was฀found฀in฀the฀pilot฀study,฀which฀used฀ a฀different฀participant฀sample.฀

DISCUSSION

The฀ consistency฀ of฀ the฀ FGL฀ scores฀ and฀ median฀ rank฀ values฀ allow฀ sever-al฀ important฀ conclusions฀ to฀ be฀ drawn.฀ First,฀ we฀ received฀ a฀ loud฀ message฀ that฀ the฀ surveyed฀ Lean฀ practitioners฀ want฀ university฀ graduates฀ to฀ have฀ a฀ com-prehensive฀ or฀ systems฀ view฀ of฀ orga-nizations.฀ This฀ message฀ is฀ consistent฀ throughout฀ the฀ data.฀ The฀ most฀ impor-tant฀item฀of฀Lean฀skill,฀knowledge,฀and฀ tions฀ expect฀ employees฀ to฀ provide฀ an฀ immediate฀contribution.฀Because฀of฀the฀ more฀ recent฀ emergence฀ of฀ Lean฀ initia-tives฀in฀industry,฀the฀skills,฀knowledge,฀ and฀ expertise฀ that฀ can฀ be฀ afforded฀ to฀ students฀ prior฀ to฀ employment฀ become฀ a฀ significant฀ means฀ to฀ distinguish฀ an฀ academic฀program.฀

The฀ importance฀ of฀ a฀ systems฀ view฀ was฀echoed฀throughout฀the฀survey฀data.฀ An฀enterprise฀view฀of฀money฀was฀iden-tified฀ as฀ the฀ most฀ important฀ financial฀ and฀ accounting฀ skill.฀ Leadership฀ was฀ identified฀as฀the฀most฀important฀human-relations฀ skill.฀ Standardization฀ was฀ identified฀ as฀ the฀ most฀ important฀ engi-neering,฀operations,฀and฀marketing฀skill.฀ Many฀ researchers฀and฀ business฀ practi-tioners฀ would฀ equate฀ these฀ skills฀ with฀ an฀enhanced฀ability฀to฀get฀all฀the฀firm’s฀ resources฀pulling฀toward฀the฀attainment฀ of฀ a฀ common฀ set฀ of฀ objectives฀ for฀ the฀ system,฀namely฀the฀firm.

Most฀ academic฀ curricula฀ emphasize฀ a฀ somewhat฀ deep฀ yet฀ relatively฀ narrow฀ preparation฀ in฀ specific฀ disciplines.฀ This฀ is฀necessary฀in฀some฀fields.฀For฀example,฀ competent฀ computer฀ programmers฀ need฀ to฀ know฀ about฀ algorithms,฀ databases,฀ networks,฀interfaces,฀and฀the฀like.฀Their฀ training฀involves฀time฀and฀expense,฀and฀ without฀ it฀ they฀ are฀ not฀ able฀ to฀ function฀ in฀their฀specialties.฀It฀is฀evident฀in฀try฀ too,฀ because฀ most฀ people฀ in฀ indus-try฀ work฀ in฀ a฀ single,฀ specific฀ functional฀ discipline฀ such฀ as฀ accounting,฀ human฀ resources,฀or฀operations.฀However,฀Lean฀ requires฀ something฀ more.฀ Specifically,฀ Lean฀demands฀that฀people฀take฀a฀whole-firm฀ view฀ of฀ their฀ companies.฀ Univer-sity฀ curricula฀ can฀ introduce฀ students฀ to฀ this฀concept.฀Van฀Til,฀Sengupta,฀Fliedner,฀ Tracey,฀ and฀ Yamada฀ (2005)฀ discussed฀ one฀ approach.฀ Oakland฀ University’s฀ Pawley฀Institute฀offers฀an฀interdisciplin-Course฀ curricula฀ design฀ and฀ broad-based฀ degree฀ programs฀ should฀ reflect฀ the฀beneficial฀and฀increasingly฀necessary฀ aspects฀of฀workplace฀collaboration฀and฀a฀฀

TABLE฀6.฀Lean฀Concepts฀and฀Tools

฀ Scale฀point

Concept฀or฀tool฀ M฀ SD฀ Mdn฀rank฀value

Standardization฀of฀work฀processes฀ 1.61฀ 0.82฀ 6.00 Value฀stream฀or฀process฀mapping฀ 1.68฀ 0.78฀ 5.50 Defect-free฀production฀(poka-yoke,฀jidoka)฀ 1.74฀ 1.16฀ 7.00

Pull฀approach฀ 1.80฀ 0.66฀ 7.00

Takt฀time฀ 1.82฀ 0.82฀ 6.00

Cycle-time฀reduction฀ 1.90฀ 0.89฀ 8.00 Operator฀involvement฀and฀teamwork฀฀฀ 1.95฀ 1.29฀ 6.50 ฀฀฀(e.g.,฀quality฀circle,฀kaizen฀activity)

Visual฀management฀ 1.96฀ 1.18฀ 8.00

4W2H฀(what,฀when,฀where,฀ 2.08฀ 1.24฀ 12.75 ฀฀฀why,฀how,฀and฀how฀much)

One-piece฀flow฀ 2.16฀ 0.87฀ 6.00

Total฀preventative฀maintenance฀฀ 2.17฀ 0.98฀ 14.00

Kanban฀ 2.19฀ 0.83฀ 10.50

Production฀leveling฀(heijunka)฀ 2.23฀ 0.88฀ 10.50 Process฀or฀office฀layout฀design฀ 2.23฀ 0.99฀ 14.50 Plan-do-check-act฀cycle฀ 2.25฀ 0.98฀ 13.75 ฀฀฀(Deming฀wheel,฀Shewhart฀cycle)

Quick฀changeover฀or฀single-minute฀฀ 2.37฀ 0.74฀ 11.00 ฀฀฀exchange฀of฀die

Familiarity฀with฀complementary฀quality฀and฀ 2.60฀ 1.36฀ 16.50 ฀฀฀productivity฀programs฀(e.g.,฀six฀sigma,฀฀฀

฀฀฀theory฀of฀constraints,฀TS16949)

3Ms:฀Muda,฀Muri,฀Mura฀ 2.71฀ 1.55฀ 12.50 Statistical฀process฀control฀tools฀ 2.74฀ 1.30฀ 14.50

Note.฀Responses฀are฀from฀a฀7-point,฀fine-grained฀Likert-type฀scale฀ranging฀from฀1฀( most฀impor-tant)฀to฀7฀(least฀important).฀

systems฀ point฀ of฀ view฀ for฀ conducting฀ work.฀ Practitioners฀ desire฀ broad-based฀ degree฀ programs฀ to฀ promote฀ greater฀ worker฀flexibility฀and฀an฀enhanced฀abil- ity฀to฀cope฀with฀rapidly฀changing฀work-place฀demands,฀competitive฀threats,฀and฀ market฀opportunities.

A฀second฀conclusion฀is฀that฀research-ers฀ should฀ recognize฀ the฀ importance฀ that฀ respondents฀ attached฀ to฀ human-relations฀skills.฀The฀survey฀respondents฀ represented฀a฀variety฀of฀positions฀and฀a฀ diverse฀ array฀ of฀ functional฀ disciplines.฀ On฀ the฀ basis฀ of฀ the฀ FGL฀ mean฀ scores,฀ all฀ of฀ the฀ human-relations฀ skills฀ were฀ viewed฀ as฀ more฀ important฀ than฀ any฀ of฀ the฀ financial฀ and฀ accounting฀ skills฀ in฀ spite฀of฀respondent฀differences.฀To฀meet฀ industry฀ needs,฀ universities฀ must฀ teach฀ students฀that฀Lean฀is฀not฀simply฀a฀set฀of฀ tools,฀but฀rather฀that฀it฀is—as฀previous-ly฀ noted฀ by฀ the฀ Society฀ of฀Automotive฀ Engineers฀ International฀ (1999)—also฀ about฀ management,฀ workers,฀ and฀ the฀ trust฀that฀binds฀the฀two.฀Effective฀lead-ers฀must฀deal฀with฀the฀uncertainty฀of฀the฀ global฀ market฀ and฀ angst฀ of฀ wrenching฀ organizational฀change.฀If฀university฀fac- ulty฀are฀to฀help฀graduates฀become฀effec-tive฀ Lean฀ practitioners,฀ faculty฀ must฀ underscore฀ the฀ essential฀ importance฀ of฀ the฀ human฀ element฀ and฀ relationship฀ building฀for฀attaining฀goals,฀such฀as฀cost฀ cutting,฀waste฀elimination,฀productivity,฀ and฀quality฀improvement.฀

A฀ third฀ important฀ conclusion฀ must฀ recognize฀ the฀ desire฀ for฀ prospective฀ employees฀ to฀ possess฀ real-world฀ busi- ness฀knowledge฀and฀experience,฀as฀sug-gested฀ in฀ Table฀ 2.฀ There฀ are฀ a฀ variety฀ of฀ approaches฀ being฀ pursued฀ in฀ aca- demia฀today.฀Many฀of฀these฀are฀hands-on฀ approaches฀ include฀ semester-long฀ cooperatives,฀internships,฀or฀industry฀or฀ academic฀ projects฀ that฀ typically฀ focus฀ on฀ examining฀ a฀ small฀ portion฀ of฀ a฀ firm’s฀process฀(e.g.,฀a฀kaizen฀event)฀for฀ improvement.฀One฀example฀of฀a฀current฀ university฀program฀that฀recognizes฀this฀ concept฀is฀that฀of฀the฀College฀of฀Engi-neering฀ at฀ the฀ University฀ of฀ Kentucky.฀ The฀ faculty฀ there฀ runs฀ a฀ Lean฀ manu-facturing฀ “boot฀ camp.”฀ This฀ approach฀ represents฀an฀immersive฀learning฀expe- rience฀in฀which฀students฀work฀in฀a฀team-oriented฀environment฀and฀participate฀in฀ hands-on,฀ discovery-learning฀ exercises฀ in฀ which฀ concepts฀ introduced฀ in฀ the฀

classroom฀ are฀ immediately฀ applied.฀ These฀ exercises฀ involve฀ training฀ facto-ries,฀simulations,฀and฀field฀activities.

Immersive฀learning฀experiences฀such฀ as฀ internships฀ provide฀ important฀ real-world฀ experiences.฀ They฀ help฀ students฀ understand฀ how฀ real฀ business฀ differs฀ from฀ clinical฀ experiences฀ of฀ the฀ class-room.฀ These฀ opportunities฀ should฀ be฀ expanded฀ on.฀ Furthermore,฀ faculty฀ can฀ become฀ interns฀ as฀ well฀ and฀ improve฀ their฀ understanding฀ of฀ the฀ challenges฀ that฀students฀face.฀

The฀findings฀of฀the฀present฀study฀sug-gest฀ at฀ least฀ two฀ directions฀ for฀ college฀ curricula฀ to฀ meet฀ industry฀ needs.฀ The฀ first฀direction฀is฀to฀explore฀and฀innovate฀ ways฀of฀increasing฀broad-based,฀multi-disciplinary฀ Lean฀ content฀ in฀ university฀ programs.฀ Examples฀ are฀ offered฀ in฀ the฀ present฀article,฀but฀there฀are฀more฀pos-sibilities.฀ For฀ example,฀ distance-learn-ing฀ technology฀ may฀ allow฀ universities฀ and฀ companies฀ to฀ offer฀ cooperative,฀ real-world฀courses฀across฀institutions฀to฀ wider฀audiences.฀

The฀ second฀ direction฀ is฀ to฀ explore฀ the฀ details฀ of฀ how฀ Lean฀ is฀ taught.฀ For฀ example,฀multidisciplinary฀degree฀pro- grams,฀team-taught฀classes฀across฀sev-eral฀schools฀in฀a฀university,฀or฀specific฀ tools฀such฀as฀a฀virtual฀simulation฀may฀ better฀ enable฀ students฀ to฀ see฀ a฀ wider฀ view฀ of฀ an฀ organization’s฀ operations.฀ A฀ tool฀ such฀ as฀ a฀ virtual฀ simulation฀ could฀ allow฀ students฀ to฀ play฀ various฀ roles,฀ including฀ sales฀ representatives,฀ production฀managers,฀accountants,฀and฀ even฀customers,฀all฀for฀the฀same฀firm.฀ This฀ would฀ afford฀ students฀ a฀ greater฀ ability฀to฀see฀respective฀impacts฀across฀ all฀ disciplines฀ of฀ organization฀ when฀ the฀ firm฀ is฀ challenged฀ by฀ events฀ such฀ as฀ the฀ loss฀ of฀ an฀ important฀ market,฀ a฀ sudden฀drop฀in฀the฀cost฀of฀a฀competing฀ technology,฀ or฀ a฀ dramatic฀ rise฀ in฀ raw฀ material฀prices.฀

New฀ program฀ designs,฀ teaching฀ approaches,฀ and฀ tools฀ all฀ take฀ time฀ to฀ design,฀build,฀test,฀and฀refine.฀Joint฀uni-versity฀and฀industry฀efforts฀could฀make฀ this฀ happen.฀ Just฀ as฀ Lean฀ initiatives฀ require฀ innovation฀ in฀ the฀ workplace,฀ improving฀ Lean฀ curricula฀ content฀ in฀ universities฀will฀require฀innovation฀and฀ new฀ approaches.฀ Systems฀ approaches฀ to฀ curriculum฀ design,฀ and฀ course฀ con-tent,฀and฀hands-on฀learning฀approaches฀

for฀students฀can฀provide฀them฀the฀Lean฀ skills,฀ knowledge,฀ and฀ expertise฀ that฀ prospective฀ employers฀ desire.฀ This฀ can฀ help฀ companies฀ avoid฀ significant฀ employee฀ training,฀ development฀ time,฀ and฀ cost,฀ and฀ that฀ avoidance฀ may฀ be฀ a฀ significant฀ means฀ to฀ distinguishing฀ an฀ academic฀program.฀

NOTES

Gene฀ Fliedner฀ is฀ an฀ associate฀ professor฀ of฀ operations฀ management.฀ His฀ research฀ and฀ teach-ing฀interests฀focus฀on฀family฀or฀group฀forecasting฀ systems,฀ multi-item฀ forecasting฀ systems,฀ supply฀ chain฀ forecast฀ development,฀ supply฀ chain฀ man-agement฀ and฀ collaboration,฀ and฀ operations฀ plan-ning฀and฀control.

Kieran฀Mathieson฀is฀an฀associate฀professor฀of฀ management฀ information฀ systems.฀ His฀ research฀ interests฀focus฀on฀how฀tools฀can฀help฀groups฀make฀ difficult฀ethical฀decisions.฀His฀technical฀skills฀are฀ mainly฀in฀Web-application฀development.

Correspondence฀ concerning฀ this฀ article฀ should฀ be฀addressed฀to฀Gene฀Fliedner,฀School฀of฀Business฀ Administration,฀ Oakland฀ University,฀ Rochester,฀ MI฀48309,฀USA.฀

E-mail:฀fliedner@oakland.edu

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