Presented as Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
BERNADETA TIMUR ANJANI
Student Number : 024214057
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
i
THE MARKERS OF VIEWPOINT SHIFTS IN VIRAMONTES’
THE CARIBOO CAFÉ
AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS
AN UNDERGRADUATE THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Sarjana Sastra
in English Letters
By
BERNADETA TIMUR ANJANI
Student Number : 024214057
ENGLISH LETTERS STUDY PROGRAMME DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LETTERS
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
iv
‘Love your neighbor as yourself ’
v
For
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, I would like to express my greatest gratitude to Jesus Christ and
Mother Mary for the blessing, protection and guidance so that I can finish my
study.
I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Francis Borgias Alip, M.Pd,
M.A. as my advisor for his time, advice, suggestion, correction and unique
support during the writing of this undergraduate thesis and for Anna Fitriati, S.Pd,
M.Hum as my co-advisor for the time to read and correct this writing. I also
would like to say thank you to all lecturers who have taught me and the staff in
English Letters Department who have been so helpful to me.
Special thanks are for my beloved parents, A. Aryo Salugu and Lilik Marmawati, who give me endless support and trust. Then, I am indebted my
beloved brothers, Theo, Abil and Idos, who always encourage me in finishing my
study.
Next, I address my gratitude to Rosa, Siska, Nana, Imam, Sigit and Leo
who are eager to discuss the topic of this study with me and to give supports in
doing and all my friends for the togetherness in happy and sad time.
The last but not least, I would like to thank all the people and institution
who have given me all the helps and the properties I need to complete my study.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE ……….. i
APPROVAL PAGE ……… ii
ACCEPTANCE PAGE ………... iii
MOTTO PAGE ………... iv
DEDICATION PAGE ……… v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI……… vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………... vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………... viii
LIST OF TABLE ……… ix
ABSTRACT ………. x
ABSTRAK ………... xi
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ……….. 1
A. Background of the Study………... 1
B. Problem Formulation ……… 3
C. Objectives of the Study ………. 4
D. Definition of Terms ………... 4
CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL REVIEW ………. 5
A. Review of Related Study ……….. 5
B. Review of Related Theories ……….. 9
1. Theory of viewpoint ……… 9
2. Theory of deixis ……….. 12
3. Theory of naming .………... 12
4. Theories of speech and thought representation ………... 13
C. Theoretical Framework ………. 18
CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ……….. 21
A. The Object of the Study ……… 21
B. Method of the Study ……….. 22
C. Research Procedure ………... 22
1. Data Collection ………... 22
2. Data Analysis ……….. 23
CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS RESULTS ……….………... 25
A. The viewpoints used in Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café …………. 25
B. The markers of viewpoint shift in Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café .. 42
C. The implications of viewpoint shifts toward the story ……….. 49
CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION ……….. 54
BIBLIOGRAPHY ………... 57
ix
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1. Personal pronoun in The Cariboo Café ……… 26 Table 2. The names and noun phrases to refer the characters in the
x
ABSTRACT
Bernadeta Timur Anjani. The Markers of Viewpoint Shifts in Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café and Their Implications. Yogyakarta: Department of English Letters, Faculty of Letters, Sanata Dharma University, 2010.
In the short story, The Cariboo Café, Viramontes tries to use different viewpoint in describing the development of the story so that there are some shifting viewpoints found in it. The shifting viewpoints suggest some implication toward the story. This study discusses about the shifting viewpoints in Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café, its markers and implications.
Thus, this study has three objectives. The first objective is to analyze the viewpoints used by Viramontes in her short story, The Cariboo Café. The second objective is to find out the markers of viewpoint shifts in the short story. The last is to discuss the implications of viewpoint shifts in the story.
The object of this study is the personal pronoun, name, speech and thought representation as markers of viewpoint shift in Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café. Based on the data of person deitics, in part one of the story, most of the sentences uses the third person pronoun as the subject and never uses the first person pronoun. The first person pronoun is mostly used in part two. In part three, the number of sentences that use the first person pronoun is as many as the number of sentences that use the third person pronoun. Based on the data about name, the ‘I’ narrators have their own name to refer the characters in the story, while the third person narrator sometimes uses the ‘I’ narrator’s name and sometimes uses its own name to refer the characters. Based on the data of speech and thought representation, the third person narration uses speech and thought representation where the free direct discourse is mostly used.
xi
ABSTRAK
Bernadeta Timur Anjani. The Markers of Viewpoint Shifts in Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café and Their Implications. Yogyakarta: Jurusan Sastra Inggris, Fakultas Sastra, Universitas Sanata Dharma, 2010.
Dalam cerita pendek, The Cariboo Café, Viramontes menggunakan sudut pandang yang berbeda dalam menceritakan perkembangan cerita sehingga ada beberapa perubahan sudut pandang yang ditemukan. Perubahan sudut pandang memberikan pengaruh terhadap cerita. Studi ini berdikusi tentang perubahan sudut pandang dalam The Cariboo Café oleh Viramontes beserta penanda dan pengaruhnya.
Oleh sebab itu, studi ini memiliki tiga tujuan. Pertama adalah menganalisa sudut pandang yang digunakan Viramontes dalam The Cariboo Café. Yang kedua adalah mencari penanda dari perubahan sudut pandang dalam cerita. Yang terakhir adalah membahas pengaruh dari perubahan sudut pandang dalam cerita.
Objek dari studi ini adalah kata ganti orang, nama, kalimat gagasan dan ucapan sebagai penanda perubahan sudut pandang dalam The Cariboo Café oleh Viramontes. Sesuai dengan data deiksis persona, di bagian pertama cerita, hampir semua kalimat menggunaknan kata ganti orang ketiga sebagai subjek dan tidak pernah menggunakan kata ganti orang pertama. Kata ganti orang pertama banyak digunakan di bagian dua. Di bagian tiga, jumlah kalimat yang menggunakan kata ganti orang pertama sama dengan jumlah kalimat yang menggunakan kata ganti orang ketiga. Menurut data tentang nama, narator ’saya’ memiliki julukan sendiri untuk menunjuk pada karakter dalam cerita sedangkan narator orang ketiga kadang menggunakan julukan yang digunakan narator ’saya’ dan kadang menggunakan julukan tersendiri untuk menunjuk pada karakter. Menurut data kalimat ucapan dan gagasan, narasi orang ketiga menggunakan kalimat ucapan dan gagasan dimana kalimat gagasan langsung bebas paling sering digunakan.
1
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study
A literary work has its own uniqueness that makes it different from the
other. This uniqueness impresses reader in many different levels. Some of the
readers use it as a way to find enjoyment, and the other readers respond in more
serious way by doing close reading and observing its relation with other discipline
in order to get better understanding toward the literary work.
One of the methods to observe a work of literature is by studying the work
as it is. It deals with the text itself and the parts that construct it. Language is one of the parts that cannot be separated from a work of literature and the study of
language in literature becomes a creative subject to discuss.
In a narration, there are some sequences of events which relate one another
and develop into a certain point. In the development stage, some information
reveals to support it with certain way of narrating and embellishment. The choice
of language used influences the development of a story. That makes the story
different from the other one. It shows that stylistics as the study of distinctive
expression in language and the description of its purpose and effect becomes an
interesting discussion.
intertextuality. The first unit is the textual medium which refers to physical
channel of communication through which a story is narrated, such as film, novel,
strip cartoon. In the second unit, the sociolinguistic code, the historical, cultural
and linguistic setting which frames a narrative is observed through language. The
actions and events as the third unit describe the way character development
intersects with the actions and events in the story. The viewpoint as the forth unit
illustrates the relation between mode of narration and character’s or narrator’s
‘viewpoint’. The third and forth unit are parts of characterization elements. The
fifth unit, textual structure, describes how the individual narrative units are
arranged and organized in the story. And the last unit, intertextuality discusses
about technique of ‘allusion’.
Those units are interesting to discuss but this study only focuses on the
viewpoint. This study tries to analyze viewpoint in Maria Viramontes’ short story
“The Cariboo Café”. In the short story, Viramontes tries to use different viewpoint
in describing the development of the story, as told by Yarbro-Bejarano in the
introduction of the book, The Moths and Other Story, ‘In this story (The Cariboo Café), as in others, she (Viramontes) experiments with shifting points of view,
interweaving various characters’ perspectives and avoiding a linear development
of the action’ (Viramontes, 1995:21). This short story uses more than one
viewpoint in narrating the story. There are three parts in the short story and each
part has their own narrator. The writer, Viramontes, uses the third person narrator
perspective. The last part uses both the third person narrator and the first person
narrator. The first person narrator is described as a refugee woman who lost her
five years old son.
Sonia Saldívar-Hull explains that Viramontes’ creative writing by using
shifting viewpoints is not merely an aesthetic of writing but also as way of
showing the identity of Chicano writing and way of saying the political campaign.
…, the narrative structure of “The Cariboo Cafe” connects Chicana aesthetics to the literary traditions of such Latin American political writers as Gabriel García Márquez and Isabel Allende. The fractured narrative employed in this story hurls the reader into a complicated relationship with the text. The reader enters the text as an alien to this refugee culture; Viramontes crafts a fractured narrative to reflect the disorientation that the immigrant workers feel when they are subjected to life in a country that controls their labor but does not value their existence as human beings. (http://college.hmco.com/english/lauter/heath/5e/resources/author_pages/co ntemporary/viramontes_he.html)
Therefore, this study discusses about the shifting viewpoints in
Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café. It also observes the markers of the viewpoint shifts and the implications toward the story.
B. Problems Formulation
Based on the explanation above, the researcher would like to state some problems
on Viramontes’ short story “The Cariboo Café”. The problems are formulated as
follow.
1.Which viewpoints are used by Viramontes in The Cariboo Café? 2.What are the markers of viewpoint shifts in the short story?
C. Objectives of the Study
This study has three objectives. The first objective is to analyze the viewpoints
used by Viramontes in her short story The Cariboo Café. The second objective is to find out the markers of view point shifts in the short story. The last is to discuss
the implications of viewpoint shifts in the story.
D. Definition Term
There are some key words in this study, such as viewpoint, focalization, focalizer,
focalized, reflector of fiction and marker. The viewpoint is also known commonly
as perspective, focalization and point of view. Those terms is used by some critics
of the novel to refer similar meaning.
Like the related term, perspective, point of view in the basic aesthetic refers to ‘angle of vision’ as in art and film theory: so the angle of vision or perception by which the event of a novel are narrated and the information presented (Wales, 2001:306).
Montgomery following Mieke Bal and Rimmon-Kenan defines focalization,
focalizer, and focalized as states below.
Focalization refers to the way in which a text represents the relationship between who ‘experiences’ and what is experienced. The one who experiences is termed the focalizer, and who or what the focalizer experience is then called the focalized. (Montgomery, 1992:187)
5
CHAPTER II THEORETICAL REVIEW
In this chapter, the researcher will discuss some studies related to the topic
discussed that have been conducted, some theories about viewpoints and some
supported theories and how significant the theories in answering the problems.
A. Review of Related Studies
In order to support this study, the researcher has gathered more
information about the short story, The Cariboo Café, and the topic that is discussed, viewpoint. Reviewing this information may help the writing process of this study.
1. ‘La Llorona Dines at the Cariboo Café: structure and legend in the work of
Helena Maria Viramontes’ by Deborah Owen Moore
The article discusses the structure and the legend of the story. Moore asks
the reader to see the details of the story and on the other hand to look it from the
distance. In the first part of the articles, the structure of the story is being
discussed. It is mentioned that the short story consists of three parts. Each part
tells about a nucleus family which is broken a part. The narrator, the one who tells
the story, is different from one part to another part. The first part uses a third
person narrator, Sonya, a little girl who loses her key to the apartment. In the
is used. And in the last part, the narrator jumps from a first person narrator to a
third omniscient narrator and then back to a first person narrator.
The story line is also fragmented and it does not have any connection with
one and other. In the beginning of the story, some fragmented images which show
the place background of the story are introduced from Sonya’s viewpoint. Sonya
and her brother lose the key of their apartment and then try to find the way to Mrs.
Avila’s house to find shelter to stay. In the process of finding the house, she
becomes confused tracing the way, her memories are fragmented.
In the second part, the story tells about an I-narrator, a café owner who has
lost his family. He has lost his son in war which causes the broke of his relation
with his wife. The plot is defracted and not unified, which makes the story more fragmented. The third part is a story about a mother who has lost her little son
because he has been taken by local police.
The last part looks more fragmented but after Viramontes introduces La
Llorona, the story becomes clearer. La Llorona is a legend which describes as a
‘ghostly female figure who haunts waterways like canals, creeks, and rivers,
wailing loudly as she searches for the spirit of her children’. Moore argues that
after knowing the background of La Llorona, the reader can re-see the three
stories and the connection between those stories and the legend of La Llorona.
The children are separated from their parents and the parents look for their lost
children. Sonya’s parent looks for the children by using advertisement in the
does the refugee woman. She looks for her son in other and even she convinces
herself that the boy who looks like Geraldo, her son, is Geraldo himself.
In the article above, the viewpoint is discussed to explain the structure of
the short story and to describe the fragmented of the story. The present study is
different from the article above because the present writer discusses not only the
viewpoint in the short story but also the markers of viewpoint shift and its
implications toward the story.
2. ‘Graphological deviation, style variation, and point of view in Marabou Stork Nightmares’ by Irvine Welsh (1999)
Reviewing on the study, we can know that there is one narrator but there
are some different levels of narration in the novel. Welsh uses the term level of narrator because there is one person who tells the story but in three different
‘level’ of conditions, unconscious, narrator’s past before becoming unconscious,
and semi-conscious. Each level is characterized by different linguistics features.
The I-narrator, Roy Strang, is described as a person who has been staying
unconscious for two years in the Edinbergh hospital because of his attempt to
suicide.
The deepest level describes the condition when the narrator is
unconscious. In this level, the narrator is living in his dream. Some linguistics
features are used in this level, such as minor sentence construction, stops between
words, line spaces along sentences, past tense and Standard English. According to
the past tense shows that the dream is related to his past time when he stayed in
Africa and visited Kruger National Park.
The other two levels, the middle level and the high level, share the same
linguistics feature to characterize them. Both levels use non-standard Scots dialect
that shows where the narrator comes from. The past tense indicates the text-actual
world in the narrator’s past while the present tense shows the narrator’s present
time.
Welsh also discusses graphological deviation in the novel. There are some
interesting findings in it. The word ‘DEEPER’ in capital repeated in three
successive lines symbolically represents the level change to a deeper one. The
different type size symbolizes what the narrator’s viewpoint toward what people around him say. The use of capitalized small print represents the increase of
volume and pitch variation compare with other sentences, but in the other sides
the small type size indicates their lack of interest from Roy’s perspective.
3. The Significance of the Point of View in Bram Stoker’s Darcula by Agung Ponco Utomo
In the study, Utomo argues that the novel has unique and complicated
point of view. He describes several different first person points of view and
objectives occur in the story. Each point of view has function as minor or main
character in the story or sometimes its function changes from minor character into
main character. Whenever observing other characters, the first person narrator
Utomo argues that the points of view in Dracula have some functions. The
readers can gain as much information as they can from many different points of
view. The reader feels as an observer when seeing the story from minor character
point of view and as the narrator when seeing from the main character. By using
first person limited point of view in introducing the character stimulates curiosity
toward the story. Whenever it changes into not-limited point of view, the readers
feel that they involve directly in the story.
There are some effects of the unique and complicated point of view in the
story. The readers feel the liveliness of the story because they see from different
perspective. They can enjoy the atmosphere as if they themselves told directly by
seeing from first person narrator. By using the first person narrator which only tells about what the character sees, thinks, and feels about certain character and
event, the readers consider it as ‘a true story’ because they can not doubt about the
authenticity of narrator.
B. Review of Related Theories
To answer the problems formulated above, the researcher use the theory
about viewpoint and some theories related to it. In this part, the researcher will
discuss about those theories.
1. Theory of viewpoint
As it mentions in the definition of term, the word viewpoint or point of
also the ideological perspective as what Montgomery states. In Ways of Reading: advanced reading skills for students of English Literature, Montgomery states that the viewpoint can be used to perform three things. The first one is to refer to
visual perspective - spatial position and angle of vision from which a scene is
presented. The second one is to designate the ideological framework and
presupposition of a text. And the last one is to describe and analysis the relation of
the teller and the tale.(1992:84)
A discussion on the point of view or viewpoint deals with who tells and
who sees events in a story. It tries to make a distinction between who tells the
story and who sees the events in the story and the relation between them. It
identifies who tells the story whether it is the first person, third person or even the second person narrator. On the other side, it also finds out who sees the events of
the story whether it is a certain character, omniscient narrator or the mixture of the
two (Simpson, 2004:21). The activity of telling and seeing can be done by one
agent or more as what Rimmon-Kennan states below.
A person is capable of both speaking and seeing, and even doing both things at the same time-…. But a person is also capable of undertaking to tell what another person sees or has seen. Thus speaking and seeing, narration and focalization, may, but not need, be attributed to the same agent. (Rimmon-Kennan, 1983:72)
In Stylistics (2002:41), Verdonk discusses about two types of perspective. There are perspective in the first person narrator and in the third person narrator.
In the first person narrator, the narrator is a character within the story who sees
referring himself/herself as ‘I’ (first person pronoun). As what is told above,
perspective in first person pronoun is subjective because readers understand the
story only from the eyes of the characters. Because of that, readers need to know
how reliable the narrator is.
According to Verdonk (2002:43-44), discussing perspective in the third
person narrator is not always easy because the narrator can be an observer and an
omniscient witness. As an observer, the narrator sees and tells only from outside
the story. It takes up an objective perspective. While as an omniscient witness, the
narrator can reveal what is inside the character’s mind so that the information
given is not only observable but also more intimate. Verdonk calls it as a third
person expression of first person experience. Montgomery (1992:186) argues that there are contrasting possibilities within third person narration. The third person
narration can be outside or inside the character.
Verdonk in Stylistics (2002:34) also discusses about reader who becomes a participant within the story. It can happen by using second person pronoun, you,
to whom the first person is addressing. Whenever there is no addressee appears in
the story, a kind of vacuum is created and the reader drawn into it. As a
participant in the story, the reader supposes to share the given information, which
is referring to the information which the speaker assumes to be already known to
the addressee, as the background to the other elements of discourse
communicating new information which speaker assumes that the addressee does
information, the definite article ‘the’ is used while to indicate the new
information, the indefinite article ‘a’ is often used (Verdonk, 2002:37).
2. Theory of deixis
Wales states (2001:99) that deixis in linguistics refers generally to all
those features of language which oriented or ’anchor’ our utterances in the context
of proximity of space (here versus there; this versus that), and of time (now versus
then), relative to the speaker’s .The indicative elements are called deictics.
Verdonk (2001:35-36) states that there are three types of deictics, namely place
deictics, time deictics and person deictics. This study focuses on person deictics.
The person deictics consist of pronoun which includes first-person pronoun ‘I’ (and its related forms ‘me’, ‘my’ and ‘mine’) and second-person pronoun ‘you’
(and its related forms ‘your’ and ‘yours’)
3. The theory of naming
Uspensky in Rimmon-Kenan (1994:83) shows that shifting in naming can
indicate a change of focalizer within the same paragraph or sentence. Uspensky
shows that the various names of Napoleon in Tolstoy’s War and Peace betrays differences as well as changes of attitude toward him. The Russians call him
‘Bonaparte’, emphasizing his nationality, while the French call him ‘Napoleon’.
With the progress of his conquests, most Russians switch to Napoleon and those
4. Theories of speech and thought representation
In Stylistics: a resource book for students, Simpson quoted Short explains that there are significance conceptual differences between the speech and thought
modes. Whereas speech could be overheard and reported by any bystander to an
interaction, the presentation of thought is somewhat ‘counterfeit’ insofar as it
presumes entry into the private consciousness of the character (2004: 32).
The speech and thought representation can be of four possible discourses:
direct discourse, indirect discourse, free direct discourse, and free indirect
discourse. Simpson argues that the freer and/or direct of presentation, the lesser
narrator’s control over what was said or thought so that a character is permitted
ultimately to express thought or speech in a seemingly unmediated way.
Besides those categories of speech and thought representation, there are
another category namely Narrative Report of Action which consists of Narrative
Report of Speech (NRS) and Narrative Report of Thought (NRT). These
categories involve the narrator reporting that speech and thought has taken place
but without offering any indication of flavor of the actual words used (Simpson,
2002:32).
(1) She spoke of their plans for the day ahead. (NRS) (2) He wondered about her love for him. (NRT)
Sentence (1) is a Narrative Report of Speech which indicates by the presence of
thought takes a place, it makes the sentence categorized into Narrative Report of
Thought.
Verdonk argues that in the direct speech (DS) and the direct thought (DT),
the narrator delegates the perspective to the characters and leaves them to speak
for themselves. But here, the narrator still controls the narration because he/she
decides when it is contextually appropriate for the characters to be left to speak
for themselves. On the other hand, it can be assumed that there is a restricted
omniscient on the part of narrator.
The direct speech usually consists of two clauses, reporting clause and the
speaker actual words which are separated by a comma or colon. The reporting
clause or tag contains a reference to the speaker, and a speech act verb, e.g. say, state, reply, shout. Speaker’s actual word is written between quotation marks and
marked by a capital letter in first quoted word. The direct speech also admits
exclamation, term of address, interjection, etc. (Wales, 2001:111).
In terms of form, the direct thought shares the same characteristics with
direct speech. But it is different in the verb of reporting clause which indicates
mental activities like think, ponder, and wonder (Wales, 2001:112).
Verdonk explains in Stylistics that in indirect discourse (indirect speech and indirect thought), the narrator reports only the content of what the character
said or thought so that it allows the narrator to intervene and interpret the
character’s original words, thereby in this point there is a shifting perspective.
speech act verb/clause or tag. In the process of reporting, the direct words appear
to be transmuted. The present time in the that-clause is normally ‘backshifted’ to
the past; the first person pronoun, I, becomes the third person, she; verbs and
adverbials expressing ‘proximity’ shift to those off ‘distance’ (Wales, 2001:209).
The function of indirect speech is to report, so that missing information
(emotion, expression) might happen. It is different from direct speech which
leaves the speakers to speak themselves so that no reduced or added information.
Seeing that, we can understand an indirect speech is used to share something
which considers not really important, while a direct speech is used to show
something important. It is like what Wales says below.
‘And by a kind of iconic resemblance, the opposition between IS and DS can be exploited in terms of foregrounding and backgrounding, in terms of prominence in plot, or moral ‘directness’ or warmth of feeling versus muted status, coldness, of evasiveness, etc.’ (Wales, 2001:210).
The free direct speech is used to describe a method of representing speech
in the written medium. It has the characteristics of direct speech but without
accompanying reporting clause or tag.
(3) She said, ‘I want to see the elephants’ (DS) (4) ‘I want to see the elephants’ (FDS)
(Wales, 2001:162)
Sentence (3) is a direct speech because there are two clauses in the sentence, the
reporting clause She said and speaker’s actual words ‘I want to see the elephants’. Whenever the reporting clause is omitted, like in sentence (4), it becomes free
direct speech.
The free direct thought describes the representation of thought in the
thought but without reporting clause and sometimes the quotation marks are
omitted. To determine whether the character is thinking or talking can be seen
only from the context.
(5) She suddenly thought, ‘Am I too late?’ (DT) (6) ‘Am I too late?’ (FDT)
(Wales, 2001:164)
Sentence (5) is a direct thought because there are two clauses in the sentence,
reporting clause and speaker’s actual thought. To determine the act is thinking of
speaking, we can see it from the reporting clause. While in free direct thought,
like in sentence (6), we understand the act from the context.
The free indirect speech refers to a kind of indirect speech or reported
speech in which the speech of a character and the words of the narrator are blended, but with no reporting clause indicated. Wales argues that FIS is often
more vivid than IS, since other transpositions characteristics of IS do not usually
occur: notably the shift from proximity reference to distance in adverbials of time
and place.
(7) She said, ‘We are bound to see the elephants here today’ (DS)
(8) She said that they were bound to see the elephants there that day. (IS) (9) They were bound to see the elephants here today. (FIS)
(Wales, 2001:164)
Sentence (7) is a direct speech. When it changes into indirect speech, it becomes
sentence (8). By comparing sentence (7) and (8), we can identify that the deictic
words switch from proximal forms into distal forms: here (adverb of place) transposes into there, today (adverb of time) transposes into that day. There are also some changes in tense and pronoun: present tense transposes into past tense
indirect speech, it becomes sentence (9). Here, the deictic words do not switch and
the reporting clause is omitted.
The free indirect thought refers to a kind of indirect thought in which the
thought of a character and the words of the narrator are blended, but with no
reporting clause indicated. As with FIS, there is no reporting clause, and a
prevailing indirect speech mode of representation, but with a direct or ’present’
deictic orientation rather than an indirect or distance one, e.g.:
(10) She suddenly thought, ‘I’ve seen this man before’ (DT) (11) She suddenly thought that she had seen that man before. (IT) (12) She had seen this man before. (FIT)
(Wales, 2001:166)
As what we see in sentence (10) and sentence (11), the change that occurs in
converting direct thought into indirect thought is the same as the change that
occurs in converting direct speech into indirect speech. In the form of free indirect
thought, like in sentence (12), there are no reporting clause and no change in
deictic words.
In Stylistics, Verdonk argues that free indirect discourse causes ambiguity and irony because on one side readers can sense the presence of an intruding
narrator who mediates between character and reader and on the other side readers
can also notice vestiges of the characters’ original speech/thought. (2002:48)
In Dictionary of Stylistics, Wales mentions about a stream of consciousness technique and an interior monologue as a special kind of internal
focalization. The stream of consciousness technique is a technique where the
narrator makes the reader has illusion of having direct access to the mental
and indirect thought (2004:368). Like in the stream of consciousness technique,
an interior monologue describes the inner thought of a character but without the
presented of a narrator. It describes a technique in the novel for representing the
direct thought process of characters. It is an extended form of free direct thought.
It is characterized by first person pronoun, present orientation in tense and
deictics, and the absence of a reporting clause and graphological marks of
quotation, and so any signs of a narrator. The focalization is internal and
subjective (2004:217).
C. Theoretical Framework
The definitions of point of view are needed as the basic understanding of the topic being discussed on this writing. From those definitions, this study will
focus on the use of viewpoint for describing and analyzing basic types of
narration, the relation of the teller to the tale in any narrative.
To answer the first problem formulation, which viewpoint used in the
short story is, we apply the theories about type of perspective introduced by
Verdonk. There are two kinds of perspective, perspective in first person narrator
and perspective in third person narrator. In the first person narrator, the narrator is
a character within the story who sees and tells the event from his/her perspective
and referring himself/herself as ‘I’. In a first person narration, the first person
narrator sometimes invites the reader as a participant within the story by
speaker assumes to be already known to the addressee, and gets new information
which speaker assumes that the addressee does not get before.
The narrator in the third person narration can be as an observer and an
omniscient witness. As an observer, the narrator sees and tells only from outside
the story. It takes up an objective perspective. While as an omniscient witness, the
narrator can reveal what is inside the character’s mind so that the information
given is not only observable but also more intimate.
To help in determining which type of viewpoint used in the short story, the
theories of personal diexis, naming and speech and thought representation are
needed. By observing on the personal pronoun as person deictics, we can
understand whose perspective is used, whether a first person narrator or a third person narrator. In the third person narration, the theory of naming and the theory
of speech and thought representation help to determine the type of narrator, an
observer or an omniscient witness. The theory of naming helps to know who the
focalizer of the short story, a character or an unidentified one, and whether the
focalizer refers to the same agent of not. Theories of speech and thought
representation help to observe the narrator’s position in telling the story, inside or
outside the character.
Before answering the second problem formulation, what the markers of
viewpoint shift in the short story are, we have to understand that point of view can
shift from one type into another. In answering the second problem, the theories of
becomes the markers of viewpoint shift. Those theories also give some clues
about other markers of viewpoint shift.
To understand the implication of viewpoint shift in the story, those
theories above can be used to analyze it. By answering the previous problem
formulations, we can identify in which type of perspective used. A perspective in
the first person narrator tends to be subjective, while in the third person narrator
tends to be objective. An observer narrator is more objective than an omniscient
21
CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY
This chapter consists of three parts, namely: the object of the study, the
method of the study, and the research procedure. The research procedure covers
two parts namely data collection which explain how to gather the data and data
analysis which explain how to analyze the data.
A. Object of the Study
The source of this study is a short story by Helena Maria Viramontes
entitled The Cariboo Café. The story is one of the short story collections entitled The Moths and other stories. It had been published in 1995 by Arte Publico Press. This book consists of eight short stories, namely The Moths, Growing, Birthday, The Broken Web, The Cariboo Café, The Long Reconciliation, Snapshot and Neighbors. Those short stories, including The Cariboo Café, discuss about the struggles of women within the Chicano family and culture. The Cariboo Café consists of three parts in which there are fourteen paragraphs in the first part,
sixteen paragraphs in the second part and forty-six paragraphs in the last part.
According to the problems formulated above, the object of this study is the
viewpoint shift in Viramontes’ The Cariboo Café. It is represented in the data of personal pronoun, name, speech and thought representation. Those data indicate
B. Method of the Study
The methods in doing this study are empirical research and library
research. The empirical research is conducted because the research relies on the
primary data. In this study, all the data are taken from Viramontes' The Cariboo Café. The writer also uses library research which is necessary to compose the review of literature and methodology.
C. Research Procedure
1. Data Collection
The data of this study are words and sentences that become the marker of
viewpoint, for this study focuses on the personal pronoun, name, and speech and thought representation. Based on the number of part in the short story, each data
divide into three parts.
The first data are personal pronouns and nouns which are used as the
subject of sentences in the short story. The data are categorized into four: the first
person pronoun, the second person pronoun, the third person pronoun and others
which cover names and noun phrases. The researcher counts the numbers of each
category in every part of the short story and makes it in the form of percent.
The second data focuses on the names and noun phrases used by the
narrator to refer to the characters within the short story, namely Sonya, Macky,
the cook and the woman. Those characters have more than one name in the story.
The third data is categorized into two: the data of speech and of thought
representation. Each category covers five discourses: narrative report of act, direct
discourse, free direct discourse, indirect discourse and free indirect discourse.
The researcher counts the numbers of each discourse in every part of the short
story and describes it in a table.
2. Data Analysis
The first step is using the data of personal pronoun to identify which
viewpoint is used in the short story. If the first person pronoun is used and the
other pronoun refers to the character who ‘I’ narrator talking about and talking to,
it means that the part or paragraph uses perspective in the first person pronoun. If the third person pronoun is mostly used and there is no first person pronoun used,
it means that the part or paragraph uses perspective in the third person narrator.
The second step is identifying the position of the third person narrator
whether it is outside, as an observer, or inside the story, as an omniscient witness,
by analyzing the data of name and speech and thought representation. A certain
name is used by certain narrator to refer a character. If the name used by a
character, it means that the perspective is in an omniscient narrator. If the name
used by unidentified character, it means that the perspective is in an observer
narrator. The presence of thought representation gives the clue that the narrator
becomes an omniscient witness.
viewpoint. The next step is identifying whether the data of personal deixis, name,
and speech and thought representation can show the viewpoint shift and the other
markers of viewpoint shift.
From those steps, we can find out the relation between the tale and the
teller, in which part the writer uses a certain type of perspective in telling the
story, in the beginning, in the middle, or at the end. From the description, we
25
CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS RESULTS
In this chapter, the researcher will discuss the result of data collection and its relation
with the problem formulation. This chapter is divided into three parts. Part one
discusses about the viewpoint used in the short story as seen from the person deixis in
the sentences. Part two discusses the markers of viewpoint shift in the short story and
the last part discusses about the implications of viewpoint shift toward the story.
A.
The viewpoints used in Viramontes’
The Cariboo Cafe
The short story entitled
The
Cariboo
Café
consists of three parts. There are 14
paragraphs in part 1, 16 paragraphs in part 2, and 46 paragraphs in part 3. Part 1 told
about two kids, Sonya and Macky, who could not enter their apartment because they
had lost the key. They felt tired for waiting in front of the apartment and they decided
to go to Mrs. Avila’s house to wait for their parents. But on their way, they got lost.
They entered dark alley which is scary and confusing and at the end of this part, they
finally saw a glowing room, the zero zero café. In part 2, there was a cook who told
about himself and his café, the double zero café. He described about his costumers
especially a woman with two kids who made trouble in his café. Part 3 told about the
woman lost her son. She felt hopeless and moved to another country as an illegal
believed him as her son, Geraldo. She felt very happy and planned to return home
with him. But she died before she can realize her plan. She was shot by the cop on her
forehead because she struggled to keep the boy with her.
According to Verdonk (2002), there are two kinds of perspectives, namely:
the perspective in first person narrator and the perspective in third person narrator.
The used of first person pronoun such as ‘I’, and ‘we’ characterizes the perspective in
first person narrator while the used of third person pronoun, such as ‘he’, ‘she’ and
‘they’ characterizes the perspectives in third person narrator.
To know whose perspective is used in the short story, the data about personal
pronouns are needed. The data focus on the personal pronouns that are used as the
subject of sentences in the story. Based on the type of personal pronouns, the data are
categorized into four: the first person pronoun as the subject, the second person
pronoun as the subject, the third person pronoun as the subject, and the others (name,
noun phrase) as the subject.
PRONOUN
PART SENTENCE FIRST SECOND THIRD OTHERS
1 81 100% 0 0.00% 1 1.23% 49 60.49% 31 38.27%
2 164 100% 63 38.41% 8 4.88% 27 16.46% 66 40.24%
3 261 100% 59 22.61% 9 3.45% 72 27.59% 121 46.36%
Table 1. Personal pronoun in
The Cariboo Cafe
Based on the table, there are 81 sentences in part one, 164 in part two and 261
in part three. In part one of the story, the first person pronoun is never used as a
subject. There is 1 sentence or 1.23% use the second person pronoun as the subject,
pronoun is mostly used in part two. There are 63 sentences or 38.41% use the first
person pronoun as the subject, 8 sentences or 4.88% use the second person pronoun
as the subject, and 27 sentences or 16.46% use the third person pronoun as the
subject. In part three, there are 59 sentences or 22.61% use the first person pronoun as
the subject, 9 sentences or 3.45% use the second person pronoun as the subject, and
72 sentences or 27.59% use the third person pronoun as the subject.
From the description above, the author uses both perspectives in the first
person narrator and in the third person narrator in telling the story. The author uses a
perspective in the third person narrator in part one. It can be seen from the data which
show that none of sentences in part one uses first person pronoun and most of the
sentences use third person pronoun.
In part two of the story, the author tells from the perspective of a character in
the story who refers himself in the first person pronoun. The data show that there are
first person pronouns, second person pronouns, and third person pronouns used as
subject in part two. The sentences in part two use more the first person pronoun than
the third person pronoun as the subject. The first person pronoun refers to the same
character, a cook, and the third person pronoun refers to characters in the story who
the cook is talking about. Form those descriptions, we can conclude that part two uses
perspective in first person narrator.
Part three of the story uses both perspectives in the first person narrator and in
person pronoun, second person pronoun, and third person pronoun. The first person
pronoun refers to the same person, an illegal immigrant woman, and the third person
pronoun refers to characters within the story who the woman is talking about. It
explains that those paragraphs use the first person narrator. The following paragraphs,
paragraph 35 until paragraph 45, use the third person pronoun as the subject of the
sentences. It shows that those paragraphs use the perspective in the third person
narrator. While in the last paragraph, the first person pronoun, which refers to the
woman, is used again. It shows that this paragraph uses the perspective in the first
person narrator.
Uspensky in Rimmon-Kenan (1994:83) shows that shifting in naming can
indicate a change of focalizer within the same paragraph or sentence. In
The Cariboo
Cafe
, the narrators sometimes use more than one name to refer to a certain character.
PART SONYA MACKY
SONYA AND
MACKY THE COOK THE WOMAN
1 Sonya Macky
his sister mi'jo
2
the doggie of a
sister the boy two kids crazy lady
his sister Short Order
this short woman
his doggie sister his mom
the lady
the illegal
3 the young girl Geraldo the cook the lady
Short Order's
sister mi'jo
his sister my baby
her brother
the small boy
Short Order
These second data are the names and noun phrases which refer to the character
Macky, Sonya, the cook and the woman. In the first part, where the third person
narrator is used, the name
Macky
is used to refer to Macky and
mi’jo
which is used by
Sonya to call Macky. The name
Sonya
and
his sister
are used to refer to Sonya. In the
second part, the cook as the first person narrator refers Sonya as
the doggie of a
sister, his sister,
and
his doggie sister
. He refers Macky as
the boy
and
Short Order
.
He calls the woman as
crazy lady, this short woman, his mom, the lady
and
the
illegal
. In the third part, where both the first and the third person narrator are used,
the woman as the first person narrator calls Macky as
Geraldo
,
mi’jo
, and
my baby
and the cook as
the cook
and never mentions about Sonya in her narration. The third
person narrator uses
the young girl, Short Order’s sister
and
his sister
to refer to
Sonya and,
her brother, Geraldo, the small boy
and
Short Order
to refer to Macky.
And to refer to the cook and the woman, the third person narrator uses the name
the
cook
and
the lady
also.
According to Montgomery, the third person narration can be inside the
character or outside the character. To know whether the narrator is inside or outside
the character, one of the ways is by observing the use of speech and thought
representation. The use of thought representation in the third person narration
indicates that the narrator can enter the consciousness of the character, so that the
narrator’s position is inside the character. The data of the use of speech and thought
SPEECH THOUGHT
PART NRS DS FDS IS FIS NRT DT FDT IT FIT
1 7 6 6 1 2 6
2 5 3 1
3 8 23 1 2 2 2
Table 3. Speech and thought representation
Note:
NRS : Narrative Report of Speech
DS
: Direct Speech
FDS
: Free Direct Speech
IS
: Indirect Speech
FIS
: Free Indirect Speech
NRT : Narrative Report of Thought
DT
: Direct Thought
FDT : Free Direct Thought
IT
: Indirect Thought
FIT
: Free Indirect Thought
Base on the data, speech and thought representation are found in every part of the
short story. The following discussion will focus on the speech and thought
representation in the third person narration which is found in part one and paragraph
35 until 45 in part three. In part one, there are six sentences use Narrative Report of
Though, one sentence uses Direct Thought, two sentences use Free Direct Thought
and six sentences use Free Indirect Thought. The use of thought representation
explains that the third person narrator sometimes enters the character’s mind,
Sonya’s, and reveal what is inside it. The third person narration in part three also has
some thought representations. There are two sentences uses Narrative Report of
Though, two sentences use Free Direct Thought and two sentences use Free Direct
Thought. In this part, the third person narrator can enter the characters’ mind, the
1.
Perspective in the first person narrator
As it is mentioned in previous paragraphs, the perspective in the first person
narrator is used in part two and three. Both of them use the character within the story
to see events but the character as the first person narrator in part one is different from
the character in part three.
The first person narrator in part two refers to a cook, an owner of a café. He
identifies himself as a fair guy who runs an honest business. While narrating the
story, the cooks uses non standard English like the use of
ain’t, gotta, ‘ruond, ‘bout,
‘cause, ‘till
, and the lack of subject-verb agreement. He also uses offensive words in
telling the story.
In the first paragraph of part two, the narrator opens it with a sentence that is
addressed to somebody.
(1)Don’t look at me. (2)I didn’t give it the name. (3)It was passed on.
(4)Didn’t event know what it meant until I looked it up in some library
dictionary. (5)But I kinda like the name. (6)It’s, well, romantic, almost like
the name of a song, you know, so I kept it. (7)That was before JoJo turned
fourteen even. (8)But now if you take a look of the sign, the paint’s pilled off
’cept for the two O’s. (9)The double zero café. (10)Story of my life. (11)But
who cares, right? (12)As long as every one ‘round the factories knows I run an
honest business.
Whenever we read sentence (1) and (2), it seems that somebody is looking at
‘I’ with curious face after notice ‘the name’. ‘Somebody’ and ‘I’ share the same
knowledge about the ‘the name’ and ‘I’ explains to somebody about it in the next
sentences. On the other hand, the readers do not really understand what the name
café which refers to the Cariboo Café, the title of the short story. ‘The’ in
the name
is
an indication of given information which ‘somebody’ and ‘I’ share the same
knowledge.
In sentence (5) and the other paragraphs of part two, there is a corresponding
second person pronoun; the narrator is addressing somebody who wonders about the
café, and the stories within the cafe. There is no addressee apparent within the text.
And so a kind of vacuum is created and the reader drawn in to fill it, and becomes
positioned as a participant in the fictional world.
There are some names mentioned by the cook referring to the characters in the
short story. Based on the data above, the cook considers that the woman, Macky and
Sonya as a family because he calls them as
his mom
, and
his sister
. He calls Macky as
Short Order
, a boy who steals his hearth because he is a real sweetheart like his son,
Jojo (paragraph 8). The pronoun
his
in ‘his mom’, ‘his doggie sister’ shows that
Macky becomes the center of his attention. On the other hand, he also uses
the lady
to
refer to the woman, and
the two kids
to refer to Sonya and Macky which show that
there is a distance between the woman and kids as if they are not a family. Seeing the
development of the story, these names,
the lady
and
the two kids,
are used by the
cook after he knows that the kids are missing children. The fact about the kids
explains that the woman does not have family connection with them.
The naming used by the cook referring the woman and the kids explains that
where the cook starts to tell about the woman and the kids, the cook refers the
woman, Macky and Sonya as
crazy lady
and
the two kids
. While in paragraph 8 and
9, the cook considers them as a family by using the name
his mom, his sister
to refer
the woman and Sonya. In the last paragraph of part two, where it is told that the cook
knew the kids are lost kids, the cook calls them as
the lady
, and
the two kids
. It is a
repetition of what he said in paragraph 7. It shows that in paragraph 7, the cook as ‘I’
narrator has known what happened at the end but he tells the story from the beginning
in next paragraph. Those paragraphs describe that the activity of seeing and telling is
done by different agent. The narrator, the one who tells the story, is the cook now,
and the focalizer, the one who sees the event, is the cook in the past.
The first person narrator in part three refers to a woman who lost her son. She
was hopeless to find her son so that she moved to another country as an illegal to
forget her son. From the text, we understand that ‘I’ is a religious person. She has
close relation with God, to whom she moans.
In her narration, the woman calls Macky as
Geraldo
, the name of her lost son,
and acts as if he is her son. She never mentions about Sonya. From the other narrator
who tells about the event, Sonya is described as the part of the events but from the
woman perspective’s, Sonya is never mentioned. It shows that the woman does not
care about the presence of Sonya. The woman calls the cook as
the cook
also.
In this part, we also find the second person pronoun to whom the narrator is
agent. There is a second person pronoun, to whom the narrator is addressing, who
supposes to be somebody who follows what the narrator told. No one appears to be
the addressee. The reader is drawn in to fill it so that the reader becomes a participant
in the short story as what is told below.
(1)
For
you
see, they took Geraldo.(paragraph 2 sentence 1)
(2)
I can’t take my eyes of him because,
you
see, they are swift and cunning and can
take your life with a snap of a finger.( paragraph 31 sentence 4)
(3)
That I can feel,
you
see, I’ll never let go.( paragraph 46 sentence 11)
In those sentences, the narrator tries to include the reader into the fictional world by
asking the reader to recall the memories of what she has told before.
The pronoun ‘you’ in the same paragraph does not always refer to the same
agent, as seen in paragraph 24 and 46.
(1)
You
must bend the twigs enough, but not too much for
you
might break them.
You
must find paper that is delicate and light enough to wave on the breath of the
wind, yet must withstand the ravage of a storm.
You
must tie the strings gently but
firmly so that it may not fall apart.
You
must let the string go, eventually, so that
the kite will stretch its ambition. (paragraph 24 sentence 3-6)
(2)
But
you
have snapped the cord, Lord. …. I don’t know, I don’t know what games
you
play, Lord. (paragraph 24 sentence 9 and 11)
(3)
Well, to hell with
you
,
you
pieces of shit, do you hear me? Stupid, cruel pigs. To
hell with
you
all, because
you
can no longer frighten me. I will fight
you
for my
son until I have no hands left to hold a knife. I will fight
you
all because
you
’re all
farted out of Devil’s ass, and
you
’ll not take us with
you
. (paragraph 46 sentence
3 until 7)
(4)
That I can feel,
you
see, I’ll never let go.( paragraph 46 sentence 11)
Sentences (1) and (2) are found in paragraph 24. In (1), the pronoun ‘you’ does not
refer to a certain character or reader but base on the woman opinion, it refers to
everyone who builds a kite which the process equals to raising a child. In (2), the
narrator is addressing God by using the pronoun ‘you’. Sentences (3) and (4) are
try to catch her. The last sentence is a repetition of what Maria says in paragraph 25
sentence (9) where ‘you’ refers to the men who has ruined her life and environment.
From the description, the woman refers the policemen not only as the ones who stand
in front of her but also those men who have ruined her life and her environment.
Different from in (3), ‘you’ in (4) refers to the reader to whom the narrator tries to
show her struggle for her belief until the end. And once more the reader is asked to
recall of what the woman has told.
2.
Perspective in the third person narrator
The third person narrator in
The Cariboo Café
is sometimes outside the
character and event but mostly inside the consciousness of the character. To
determine what kind of third person narrator who tells the story, the theories of name
and speech and thought representation are used in this study.
In this short story, the perspective in third person narrator is used in part one
and part three. The third person narrator is used in whole part one, while in part three,
there are only 11 paragraphs which use third person narrator, paragraph 35 until 45.
In first paragraph of part one, the third person pronoun is used to introduce the
background of the character of this part.
strangers, not even the neighbor who paced up and down the hallways talking
to himself. (6) Rule two: the police, or “polie” as
Sonya’s popi
pronounced the
word, was La Migra in disguise and thus should always be avoided. (7) Rule
three: keep
your
key with
you
at all times- the four walls of the apartment
were the only protection against the street until Popi returned home.
In sentence (1), the subject directly uses personal pronoun ‘they’ which refers to
unspecified person. It is driven into immigrants which is described as a kind of
displace person like what is told in sentence (1). Sentence (3) gives a clue that the
pronoun ‘they’ refers to a family because it mentions about mother. ‘They’ in
sentence (4) refers to the children of the immigrants. Sentence (5) until (7) is unique,
it consists of a series of rules the children should obey. The pronoun ‘you’ in sentence
(7) refers to the children. Since the name Sonya is found in sentence (6), it shows that
pronoun ‘you’ refers to Sonya indirectly. From the series of the personal pronoun and
name in the first paragraph, the reader is brought from unspecific character into the
specific one. At the first time, the pronoun refers to immigrants, after that it is
specified into an immigrant family. Next, the pronoun specifies into children of an
immigrant family and finally it refers to Sonya as the child of an immigrant family.
This first paragraph introduces Sonya as the character in the story.
The third person narrator in part one uses the name of the characters to refer
The third person narrator in part one observes not only what can be seen and
heard but also what is inside Sonya’s mind. To indicate that the narrator can enter the
character’s mind is by seeing the use of thought representation. Simpson argues that
there are five types of thought representation. In this part, there are four types
applied, namely: Narrative Report of Thought (NRT), Free Direct Thought (FDT),
Indirect Thought (IT), and Free Indirect Thought (FIT). The Narrative Report of
Thought (NRT) in this part is described below.
(1)
Sonya considered her key a guardian saint and she wore it around her neck as
such until this afternoon. (paragraph 2)
(2)
She remembered playing with it as Amá walked her to school. (paragraph 2)
(3)
Sitting on the front steps of the apartment building, she considered how to explain
the missing key without having to reveal what Lalo has seen, for she wasn’t quite
sure which offense carried the worse penalty. (paragraph 2)
(4)
What remained was a little closet-like shed with chains and locks, and she
wondered what happened to him, for she thought he lived there with the naked
lady. (paragraph 9)
The words,
considered, remembered
, and
wondered
, in those sentences show that
there is an act of thinking. The narrator states that there is a process of thought w
