Dedicated to the 89th anniversary of the National leader, Heydar Aliyev and the 20th anniversary of the establishment of "Çağ" Educational Company
CONFERENCE
MATERIALS
2
International Student Conference
Asst. Prof. Dr. Natalya Lapaeva Perm State Pedagogical University Russia Asst. Prof. Dr. Greg Jacob Portland State University USA Dr. F. Alexander Magill Şifa University TurkeyThe responsibility of the published papers in the conference materials belongs to the authors.
ISBN 978-9952-468-06-9 Copyright©Qafqaz University, Baku 2012
CONTENTS
LINGUISTICS
1
ELLIPTIC FORMS OF COMPLEX SYNTACTIC UNITS IN ENGLISH AND AZERBAIJANI
Professor Dunyamin Yunusov
2
THE INFLUENCE OF WORDS
Sandra Derrick
8
REVISITING AND RERUNNING WILLIAM LABOV’S STUDY: THE SOCIAL STRATIFICATION OF (R) IN NEW YORK CITY DEPARTMENT STORES
Kaitlin Ward (first author), F. Robson Albuquerque (co-author)
10 MINIMIZING ABBREVIATIONS IN ENGLISH
Aygul Khalilova
12
COINING NEW WORDS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Aynur Abbaszade
15
INFORMALITY IN AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aynur Huseyneliyeva
17
DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY IN BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aytan Valiyeva
22
COMPARISON RELATING TO LANGUAGE SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE TURKISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGE
Emine Kose
24
USE OF THE SUBJECT AS A RHEME IN AZERBAIJANI AND ENGLISH
Gunay Mammadli, Gunay Alizade
27
THE COLOR FACTOR IN THE USE OF ENGLISH
Gunay Poladova
32
THE LEXICAL NORMS OF AZERBAIJAN LITERARY LANGUAGE
Nofel Quliyev
35
SYNTACTIC AND MORPHOLOGICAL-SYNTACTIC CONVERSIONS IN AZERBAIJANI POETRY
Gunel Mirzeyeva
41
VOCABULARY TEACHING THROUGH BODY LANGUAGE AND FACIAL EXPRESSION
Nigar Orucova
45
COLOUR TERMS
Chinara Quliyeva
47
HISTORICAL FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS
MEANS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Sarvin Alizadeh
52
LEXICAL PARALLELS IN TURKIC “DIVAN” OF FUZULI
Sevinj Aliyeva
55
ENGLISH WORDS OF TURKIC ORIGIN
Turane Abdullayeva
57
THE USE OF MODAL VERBS IN AZERBAIJANI, ENGLISH AND GERMAN LANGUAGES
Vefa Bayramova
59
TYPES OF EPONYMS
Khatira Ahmedova
61
THE PERIODS OF LANGUAGE CHANGES IN ENGLISH
Yegana Safarova
63
HOW AZERBAIJANI STUDENTS LEARN DEGREES OF ADJECTIVE IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Haqiqat Aliyeva
65
COMMUNICATION AS A PROCESS AND GLITCHES ASSOCIATED WITH TEACHING THE ART OF COMMUNICATION
Ömer Düngel
67
ENGLISH NOMINAL CLAUSES: ANALYZING THE TRANSLATION OF
SUBORDINATE WH – INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES AND INFINITIVE WH - CLAUSES IN AZERI
Parisa Farrokh, Abolfazl Rajabli, Kambiz Mahmoodzadeh
71 THE ROLE OF AFFIXES IN UNDERSTANDING THE ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS
Pervine Valiyeva
82
THE IMPORTANCE OF COHESION AND COHERENCE IN DISCOURSE
Turana Aghayeva
85
ENGLISH'S GLOBAL TRIUMPH
Vineet Kaul
87
CONTEXTUAL NEGATIVE ELEMENTS AND IMPLICIT NEGATION
Venera Suleymanova
91
NÂBÎ DÎVÂNININ LEKSİKASINA MODERN AÇIDAN YAKLAŞIM
Salih Savaş
95
LITERATURE
105
AMERICAN NOVEL AND THE ORIENT: ARGUMENTS AND COMMENTARIES
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE PROBLEMS OF A MAN AND SOCIETY IN THE CREATIVITY OF IRIS MURDOCH
Nurlana Alaskarova
108
SHEAKESPEARE‘S APPROACHES TO POLITICS AND POLITICAL THEORY
Ali Tatli
111
THE ONLY WAY TO SAVE FROM LONELINESS
Ayten Zeynalli
114
APPROACHES TO JUSTICE AND MERCY IN RENAISSANCE DRAMA
Aziz Chankaya
115
MODERN APPROACHES TO AGATHA CHRISTIE’S HERO HERCULE POIROT
Fidan Hacıyeva
117
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE'S CREATIVITY
Khonul Anvarzade 119
THE ANGRY YOUNG MAN : ‘JOHN OSBORNE’
Günay Allahverdiyeva
121
MODERN APPROACHES TO SHAKESPEARE’S LANGUAGE
Gunay Guliyeva
124
MODERN APPROACHES TO CHARACTER OF HAMLET
Tuğçe Özdemir
127
THE NEW APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF ORIENTAL THEME IN ENGLISH LITERATURE
Lala Isayeva
128
OTTOMAN POETRY AND BRITISH CRITICISM
Ali Bereket
131
COINCIDENCES CHANGED TESS`S LIFE IN THOMAS HARDY`S “TESS OF THE D`URBERVILLES”
Aynur Hacıyeva
132
NEW AZERBAIJANI PROSE AND ITS STYLE VARIETY
Ayten Zargarova 134
JAMES JOYCE AND MODERNISM
Gunel Mammadkarimova 138
THE AMERICAN DREAM IN THE MASTERPIECE OF FRANCIS SCOTT FITZGERALD
Naila Bandiyeva 140
A TALE OF LOST ILLUSIONS OF VICTORIAN PERIOD BASED ON “GREAT EXPECTATIONS” BY CHARLES DICKENS
REVENGE AND THE RESULT IN “WUTHERING HEIGHTS” BY EMILY BRONTE
Saida Mehdiyeva 146
GREAT OPPORTUNITIES OF LITTLE GENRE
Shafa Jabiyeva 148
THE “PIE” WHICH LEADS “GREAT EXPECTATIONS”
Khanim Ahmadova 150
THE PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACH TO LITERATURE (BASED ON THE THEORY OF FREUD)
Khayala Maharramova 153
PSYCHOANALYTIC READING OF MATERNAL ISSUES IN “MADAME BOVARY”
Meryem Çelik 156
MODERN APPROACHES TO THE HUNNIC EMPIRE IN THE WESTERN LITERATURE
Natiq Adilov 158
REVOLUTION THEME IN A TALE OF TWO CITIES
Aytekin Aliyeva 161
STUDY OF LITERARY TECHNIQUES OF STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS ON JAMES JOYCE AND VIRGINIA WOOLF ‘S WORKS
Sevda Salayeva 163
SYMBOLISM IN JAMES JOYCE'S "ARABY"
Narmin Veledova 167
THE ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH CASTLES NAMES
Salmanli Aysel 170
APPROACHES TO SHEAKESPEARE ‘S OTHELLO
Sevda Huseynova 173
EDUCATION
175
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
Shirley A. Stanley 176
“INTRODUCING AUTHENTIC LITERATURE TO AN EFL CLASSROOMS”
Aynur Bashirova 181
QUALIFIED EDUCATION AND ITS GLORIOUS FUTURE
Aygun Guliyeva 183
THE ROLE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
Sadigli Aysel 185
MODERN APPROACHES IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
USING POEMS TO DEVELOP PRODUCTIVE SKILLS
Hamidov Elchin 191
INCREASE INTERPERSONAL REGARD AND UNDERSTANDING
Elnara Sevdimova 193
THE NEED FOR ELECTRONIC LEARNING IN EDUCATION
Esra Arslan 195
INVESTIGATING THE USE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES AMONG IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS
Hamidreza Bolhari 197
APPLICATION OF GAMES INTO THE TEACHING PROCESS OF ENGLISH AT SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Leyla Alili 199
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENT INCREASES EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE LEARNING PROCESS
Matanat Rustamova 202
USING SITUATION COMEDIES AS A TOOL FOR ELT
Merve Turan 205
ORGANIZING LESSONS TO IMPROVE LANGUAGE SKILLS
Parvana Hajiyeva 206
TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN THROUGH STORIES
Sevda Kelbiyeva 208
COMMON PROBLEMS HINDERING AZERI LEARNERS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Khazar Novruzov 211
TEACHING ENGLISH TO ARABIC- SPEAKING STUDENTS: CULTURAL AND LINGUISTIC CONSIDERATIONS
CONFERENCE MATERIALS
ELLIPTIC FORMS OF COMPLEX SYNTACTIC UNITS
IN ENGLISH AND AZERBAIJANI
Professor Dunyamin Yunusov
Azerbaijan University of Languages
SUMMARY
The article explores elliptic forms of complex syntactic units in English and Azerbaijani. Depending upon different situations there appear elliptic forms of complex syntactic units. The author tries to prove that there are different kinds of elliptic sentences and they appear on the components of the text and the previous and the following sentences.
Key words: incomplete, elliptic, construction, syntactical unit.
MÜXTƏLİF SİSTEMLİ DİLLƏRDƏ ELLİPTİK FORMALI MÜRƏKKƏB SİINTAKTİK VAHİDLƏR
XÜLASƏ
Məqalədə ingilis və Azərbaycan dillərindəki elliptik formalı mürəkkəb sintaktik vahidlərdən bəhs olunur. Müxtəlif situativ şəraitdən asılı olaraq, mürəkkəb sintaktik vahidlərin müxtəlif elliptik for-maları yaranır. Müəllif sübut etməyəçalışır ki, müxtəlif növ elliptik cümlələr mövcuddur və onlar da mətnin komponentlərindən vəəvvəlki və sonrakı cümlələrdən asılı olaraq meydana gəlir.
Açar sözlər: natamam, elliptik, tərkib, sintaktik vahid.
FARKLI SİSTEMLİ DİLLERDE ELLEPTİK BİÇİMDE KARMAŞIK SİNTAKTİK BİRİMLER
ÖZET
Makalede ingiliz ve Azerbaycan dillerindeki elliptik biçimdeki karmaşık sintaktik birimler an-latılıyor. Farklı situativ konuma bağlı olaraq, karmaşık sintaktik birimlərin farklı elleptik biçimleri oluşuyor. Yazar, farklı tip elleptik cümlelerin mevcutluğunu ve onlarda yazının içeriklerinden ve önceki ve sonraki cümlelerle bağlılığının yaranmasını ispatlamaya çalışıyor.
Anahtar kelimeler: tam olmayan, elliptik, içerik, sintaktik birim.
Ы Ы А
В А Ы Ы А
The elliptic forms of complex syntactic units are those complexes which the missing of either principal or the subordinate clause – in transform – construction doesn’t seem to be incomplete either structurally or semantically.
The elliptic forms of different complex syntactic units happen in different situation. This difference of form, furthermore, is closely connected with those constructions and out of which structural forms they have been sourced. The initial semantico-grammatical characters of structural forms and their ways of expressing lexically affect on their later development of the transformation process. In some complex syntactic units the subordinate clause of the first component is parallel to the predicate of different mood, tense and person paradigms of the second component. The predicates of these parallel components are expressed by the same lexical unit. In these constructions the predicate of the principal clause is usually expressed by the verbs “say” (“tell”) in English and “демяк” in Azerbaijani. Sometimes they may be expressed by the verbs close in meaning to them. Two elliptic forms are possible in such kind of complex syntactic units in compared English and Azerbaijani languages.
I. In the first case consisting of a subordinate clause of object, the first component, i.e. the principal clause undergoes the ellipciss.
In English
E.g. We are obeyed the order; pull down this building, we pull down, ruin this street, we ruin, build a new building, we build a new one.
In Azerbaijani
Бизямрятабейик; бубинанысюк, биздясюкцрцк, букцчянидаьыт, биздядаьы
-дырыг, йенибинауъалт, йенисиниуъалдырыг
In the above mentioned examples the predicate of the principal clause can be expressed by the verbs “say” (tell), “order”, “command”, “ask” etc. in English and “демяк”, “ямретмяк”, “сярянъамвермяк”, “тапшырыгвермяк” etc. in Azerbaijani. But potentially the content of these structural units exist in elliptic constructions themselves and they are thought to be easily reconstructed.
E.g. 1. We are obeyed the order, they say (order, command, ask) pull down this building, we pull down, they say ruin this street, we ruin, they say build a new building, we build a new one.
2. Бизямрятабейик, дейирляр (ямредирляр, сярянъамверирляр, тапшырыгверирляр),
бубинаны сюк, биздясюкцрцк, дейирлярбукцчянидаьыт, биздядаьыдырыг, дейирляр,
йенибинауъалт, йенисиниуъалдырыг.
II. In the second case the subordinate clause of the first component which is parallel to the second component is not used. It should be mentioned that this case is not found in the English language.
E.g. Балаш:Ортадангапыныбаьла, буйаначыхма.
Севил:Йахшы, Балаш, дейирсян, чыхмарам.(Ъ.Ъаббарлы).
E.g. Севил:Йахшы, Балаш, дейирсян, чыхма, чыхмарам.
It should be mentioned that though there is informatic alikeness between complete and incomplete forms, we can’t find the semantic identity between them. So the semantic shade of colouring in incomplete forms, especially emotional-ex-pressive shades of colouring shows definite semantic separation. In such kind of complex syntactic units there are some mixed types which exist not only two pa-rallel components but more than two and in this case the previous components remain wholly but the last component undergoes the ellipciss.
E.g.Атдедин, вердик, атаарпадедин, вердик, атынйящяр-ясбабыйохдур, онуда алдыг. (С.Кяримов).
There are three parallel constructions in the above mentioned complex syntactic unit. While comparing them in paradigmatic line, we may observe that the principal clause of the third parallel construction undergoes ellipciss. In comparison with two previous parallel construction, that component must be reconstructed, like this: “атынйящяр – ясбабыйохдур, дедин, онудаалдыг”.
The ellipciss of the principal clauses happens to be widely used in direct speech. So using the proverbs and sayings in our speech we usually use before them the author’s words: “there is such a saying / proverb”, “белямясялвар”, “father said” “аталардейибляр”, “they say so” “белядейирляр” etc. and according to those expres-sions the sentence constructions are used like this.
E.g. 1. There is such a proverb - “A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush” 2. Аталардейибки, “соьанолсун, няьдолсун”.
3. They say so “don’t look a gift horse in the mouth”. 4. Белядейирляр “бяйверянатындишинябахмазлар” etc.
Unlike the English language, in Azerbaijani even both of these stable construc-tions “мясялвар, дейярляр” are used simultaneously and they perform the function of homogenous principal clause.
E.g. Бизлярдябелябираталармясяливар, дейярляр: Эюздянузаг, кюнцлдянираг. There is a proverb in our language, they say “out of sight, out of mind”. Proverbs and sayings are widely used among the creators of that language and there is no any additional information of showing the source of the expression and there is no need of using separate sentence structure (the principal clause). On this account M.Adilov writes: “The effect of proverbs is stronger than the above mentioned principal clauses. It should be mentioned that the quantity of words used in sentences and the effective feeling of words are non proportionate” [2, p.49]. In reality the missing of that mentioned standard sentence gives the lightness to the complex syntactic unit and increases its effective force, emotional shades of colouring.
3. It is your fault, don’t halloo till you are out of the wood. 4. Индиъязандырчяк, юзэяйягуйугазанюзцдцшяр etc.
The predicate of the ellipciss of the principal clause expressed by the verbs “say”, “демяк” is not only connected with the proverbs and sayings, but also the other constructions are observed in languages of different system.
E.g. 1. Cliff – She’s hurt. Are you all right? Alison – Well, does it look it?
Cliff – She’s burnt her arm on the iron. Jimmy – Darling, I am sorry
Alison – Get out!
Jimmy – I’m sorry, believe me. You think, I did it on pur…
Alison – Clear out of my sight (Modern English plays)
2. Кишийазыьыэюзляриндянойанагойдуларбяйям.
Эетмяэюзцмдян, эедярикюзцмдян(Ш.Гурбанов)
Analysing the semantic interrelationship of the above mentioned complex syntactic units it is proved that in English sentence the component “you say” is abridged: Though they have structural completeness, that’s the outer case. Their wholly informative thought reveals the incompleteness. It is the same about the Azerbaijani complex syntactic unit. Here in the second sentence the predicate of the principal clause which is expressed by the verb “дейирляр” is abridged.
The fact of ellipciss happens in such complex syntactic units the predicate of which is expressed by the verb “to see” in English and “эюрмяк” in Azerbaijani principal clauses. Without going into details it should be mentioned that such kind of principal clauses demands the object subordinate clauses in both compared languages. The results of investigation prove that in these complex syntactic units the verbs “see” and “эюрмяк” are used in “wh” questions. And these sentences express community and abstractness. In such type of complex syntactic units the content of the question “what”, “ня” should be revealed. Here “what”, “ня” perform the function of direct object in the sentence: “what did we see?”, “няэюрдцк?”.
The following sentence of this question may be either a simple sentence or a complex syntactic unit. In the second case the object subordinate clause is used.
E.g. 1. Going what did we see?
We saw that she was sitting with her hands on her knees and thinking 2. Эедиб ня эюрдцк? Эюрдцк ки, Ъащанэир отуруб яли чянясиндя дярин
хяйаладалыб.
In answering to the verb “saw” “эюрдцк” which is used in the principal clause and repeated twice. The usage and repetition of the verb “saw”, “эюрдцк” not only hinders the speed speech but also restricts the effective and emotional force of the expression.
and in the relationship of the semantic-grammatical relations of the components behave strangely. Here the usage of the conjunction “that”, “ки” is not proved itself. Here the semantic relation of the components is not on the surface but on the deep structure of the complex syntactic units.
E.g. 1. He looked that the younger guests immediately had put one their skates. 2. ШащзадяЯбцлфязбахдыки, Рянаханымынрянэи-рущугачыб.
3. Mr.Winkle looked that he was very pleased, but looked rather uncomfortable.
4. Бахдыки, цчатлытоз-торпаьыничиндячапарагонадоьруэялир. In reality double situation happens in such kind of complex syntactic units. The first one is that the question “to what?” “няйя?” was borne out of the principal clause and it has more determining character. If we take this item into consideration, then these complex syntactic units are considered to be the object subordinate clauses. But we can’t agree with this view point. In the second case the interrelationship of the semantic and grammatical relations is one sided and it is in outer frame, by means of it the corresponding relationship potentially seems to be in the principal clause. On this account, it seems to us that those complex syntactic units should be approached from the second position and they should be presented as elliptic constructions. The verbs “say”, “демяк” and “see”, “эюр
-мяк” are widely used in compared English and Azerbaijani languages and they can easily pass their semantic weight to the other language units which are linked. By the result of it the predicates expressed by those verbs in the principal clause, they sometimes miss these verbs and they don’t give any harm to the complex syntactic units.
E.g. 1. Hearing this, one of Mr.Winkles’ friends immediately lay on the ground, I’m dying.
2. Вуруландатiрузаныбйеря, ял-айаьыныузадыбки, юлцрям
3. One fine winter day Mr.Wardle entered the house that his friends were staying and waiting for him.
4. Заманщяйятя эирдики, атасымцщяъъяря сюйкянибфикирлищалдасигарет чякир.
Analysing the above mentioned complex syntactic units we can observe that the first two complexes embraced potentially the meaning of the verb “says” “де
-йир” but in the last two complex syntactic units potentially the verbs “saw”, “эюрдц” existed. From this point of view those complex syntactic units are considered to be object subordinate clauses. Some scholars don’t pay attention to the ellipciss here and treat these complex syntactic units as adverbial clauses of time. Though these complex syntactic units are not of the same structure but close in meaning to them. This view point is widely spread in Azerbaijani.
It happens when the expression “озаман” “at that time” is used within that complex syntactic unit.
E.g. Озаманэялдики, мяълисгурулуб.
But in the above complex syntactic unit it is impossible to add the expression “озаман”. Here the object relation seems and it is realized with the homogeneous predicate “эюрдцк” which underwent the ellipciss.
E.g. Эялдикэюрдцкки, мяълисгурулуб.
(We came and saw that the party was organized)
Unfortunately the fact of ellipciss not always reconstructed resultatively but also there are some elliptic complex syntactic units which are changed the types of subordinate clauses by reconstructing them.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up: who was that coming at this time? 2. Аста-астадиванdаn durdu, бувахтэялянкимола?
Analysing the above mentioned complex syntactic units it has been proved that “who was that coming at this time?” “бувахтэялянкимола?” are not connected with the principal clauses directly by the semantic-grammatical points wholly. The reason is that in those complex constructions the subordinate clause, in reality, is closely connected with the abridged expression in the principal clause. This may be reconstructed by different ways. In the first case we may use the verb “thought”, “фикирляшди” in the principal clause and we may be aware of the completing dinate clauses. In this case the type of subordinate clauses will be the object subor-dinate clauses.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up and thought who was that coming at this time. 2. Аста-астадиванdаn durdu вяфикирляшдики, бувахтэялянкимола. But in the second case not only the homogeneous predicate, but also the whole principal clause which is interrelated with the subordinate clause is reconstructed.
E.g. 1. Pilkins slowly stood up and was in such a mind who was that coming at this time.
2. Диванdаn durdu вяонубелябирфикирапардыки, бувахтэялянкимола. By the result of this reconstruction the other relation between the components may appear. Here the thought – logical relation is the same but the grammatical relation is quite different. So, in the second reconstruction the attributive subor-dinate clauses are formalized.
There are some kinds of elliptic forms which depend upon the components of the text within and without the previous and following constructions it’ll be difficult to make the thought wholly. Such complex syntactic units are widely used in Azerbaijani.
E.g. - Соба, айСоба, деэюрцмгазларщараучду? Soba, hey Soba, tell me where the geese flew? - Човдаркюкямдянйе, дейим.
- Гызбойунгачырды
The girl rejected
- Атамыневиндябуьдаунунданбишмишкюкямийемирям. At my father’s I don’t eat wheat floured cookey.
In the above mentioned dialogue the last complex syntactic unit seems to be complete but it is in external form. But in reality this complex syntactic unit has got the elliptic form. If that sentence is used out of the text it’ll express quite other meaning.
Атамыневиндябуьдаунунданбишмишкюкямийемирям, дейирсян, сянинчовдар кюкцндянйейим?
-I don’t eat wheat floured cookey at my father’s, you say, I’ll eat your rye cookey This is the construction of concession having the relation in composite – compound sentence but the second component of which is wholly the object subor-dinate clause. The ellipciss of that component causes the formation of an incomplete form. So not going into the deep structure of this complex syntactic unit it is difficult to show its semantic weight and reconstruct the whole structure by approaching only the outer point.
REFERENCES
1. МухинА. Т. Структурапредложенияиихмодели. Ленинград: Наука, 1968 2. Adilov M. Qəzet dili. Bakı: ADU nəşri, 1973
3. Abdullayev K. Azərbaycan dili sintaksisinin nəzəri problemləri. Bakı: Maarif, 1999, 281 s.
4. Abdullayev Ə. Müasir Azərbaycan dilində tabeli mürəkkəb cümlələr. Bakı: Maarif, 1974
5. Collier R. Intonation from a structural linguistic view point – A criticizm. Linguistics, 1974, vol 120, p. p. 5 – 28
6. Yunusov D. Constancy and variety of complex syntactic units in languages of different system. Istanbul, 2007, 114 p.
7. Yunusov D. A Guide to English Grammar. Baku: Mutarjim, 2006, 282 p.
THE INFLUENCE OF WORDS
Sandra Derrick
Fulbright Scholar, USA
Perhaps to love writing takes a particular kind of person, but I don’t think so. I believe good writing comes in many forms and from sundry persons. Did you know that there are academic articles about text messaging? One is titled “The Syntactic Aspects of Text Messaging”(Ong’onda,), which was written a woman who analyzes media’s influence on language. My students know what critical thinking is. Apply analysis to text messaging and you have a cool project for an article. Consider Shakespeare who has been written about for hundreds of years. The man still exists on the printed page, not only in the classroom where his famous works are read, but also in relation to academic analysis of literature. Topics of class division, love, jealousy, dysfunction, and death never tire. To whom do we owe credit? To Shakespeare, of course, but also to our scholars and their imaginations. Why? Because they thought critically and dared to imagine a new way of seeing. If I were to give any advice, perhaps my colleagues would want me to tell you to practice writing, to write an essay four times over, to make it perfect, to study grammar more, to craft beautiful sentences. They are right. These are elements of writing that are universal and, without such skills, you will not be taken seriously as an academic or a specialist in your field. Do I love Chekov because he wrote about a lady and her dog? Somewhat, yes, but I also love him for the rhythm of his prose and the confidence in his writer’s voice, a distinct style that shaped his adherents’ writing. My advice, if I were to give any, might be different. I might simply want to say: dare to imagine, dare to create, and then don’t stop working until your vision is accomplished.
Allow me to use the “bridge” metaphor, tired yet true: Writing is a bridge to just about any other field. Articles are published in the sciences, in translation, literature, and law. Writing connects us to friends and family. We send emails, text messages, and nowadays, more than ever are reading the words of a person, not the gestures of a person. Writing has power. What we read in the newspaper affects us. We whisper news into friends’ ears; we call each other on the phone. When we read a good piece of writing, words influence us more than we can understand. We carry words in our heads. We carry memories of how we felt reading a particularly moving story or even a well-written article. We remember when someone’s thoughts challenge our own, especially when an opinion or idea makes us uncomfortable, and we remember when someone has written so well, and we take that as a challenge to do better.
Learning to write in the international style that I have introduced to my class is not only a bridge to other fields, but the international style is a bridge to other cultures worldwide. Good research distinguishes a strong professor from a weak professor. Good research sets a student apart from his or her peers not just in the classroom, but internationally. And, good research connects students and professionals to others with similar interests. A good researcher challenges what has been accepted and attempts to shine a new perspective on a subject.
and I ask you today to take an active role. You are, after all, molding your country by what you write and by how you write. You have more power than you understand. Use it, and use it well. Be a representative of Azerbaijan and, specifically, Qafqaz University.
REVISITING AND RERUNNING WILLIAM LABOV’S STUDY:
THE SOCIAL STRATIFICATION OF (R) IN NEW YORK
CITY DEPARTMENT STORES
Kaitlin Ward (first author), F. Robson Albuquerque (co-author)
M.A. Applied Linguistics CandidatesMontclair State University
SUMMARY
In our study we were able to reinforce the notion that NYC is becoming a more unified speech community however the NYC department stores are still differentiated in a fixed order based on social stratification and that those jobs in those places are evaluated by employees in the same order.
we individually approached a random employee and asked them where a particular item could be found, which elicited the casual response “fourth floor”. The second exchange occurred where the interviewer said “excuse me?” and the employee then more carefully and emphatically repeated “fourth floor”. After the conclusion of the speech event, we recorded the data of the (r) occurrences (the dependent variables) in both the casual and emphatic speech and also included the same independent variables as Labov: the store, occupation, floor within the store, sex, race, age [estimated in five year increments], and any noticeable foreign or regional accent. Our data, consisting of 252 (r) variants from 63 speakers, reveals that the (r) stratification is still a salient linguistic variable in NYC’s speech community and that the phenomenon still occurs in a pattern that preserves the social stratification between the three department stores. Most importantly, our data also suggests that, although the r-less variant is still prevalent, [r] is becoming more common in NYC. Comparing the data to Labov’s, a pattern emerges of an over-all, though not evenly, increase of r-pronunciation. Our reproduction of Labov's study reinforces the notion that NYC is a unified speech community and also suggests that due to the increasing realization of [r], the city's speakers are becoming even more unified.
Comparison of two studies for the Overall rate of (all-r)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Labov, W. (2006). The Social Stratification of English in New York City (2 ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press.
2. Meyerhoff, M. (2006).Introducing Sociolinguistics. New York: Routledge.
MINIMIZING ABBREVIATIONS IN ENGLISH
Aygul Khalilova
Postgraduate student Qafqaz University
ABSTRACT
The essence of good writing is precision and clarity and the use of abbreviations seems an ideal way to ensure these essentials. An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always it consists of letters or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. The purpose is to provide readily- understandable substitutes for groups of words and so aid the reading effort. However there are very few abbreviations that their forms have been standardised internationally. The phenomenon of abbreviation reflects perfectly the spirit of our dynamic epoch. We use them frequently to transmit much information during the shortest period of time.
Abbreviation is a comparatively new linguistic phenomenon. The practice of abbreviating terms became convenient, because literacy rose, and advances in science and technology brought with them more com-plicated terms and concepts. Certain abbreviations can mean different things to different people. In some fields, including chemistry, medicine, computer science, and geographic information systems abbreviations are used so frequently that the reader can feel lost in an alphabet soup. However, the main purpose for using these devices is to improve the reading process, fostering fluent readability and efficient comprehension.
Writers overuse abbreviations, not realizing the problems they cause readers. But they should only use them for the convenience of the reader. We should better to remember what Shakespeare once observed: “Who understands thee not, loves thee not.” The main aim of this paper is trying to provide solutions for eliminating abbreviations.
Key words: abbreviation, acronym, stunt acronym.
An abbreviation (from Latin “brevis”, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase.
Abbreviation is a popular way of forming words. It is a comparatively new linguistic phenomenon. The last decade of the 20th century and the 21st century have brought with them new abbreviations. Not everyone knows how to use them, because many abbreviations are used in one sphere and we can not use them in other spheres. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with different signs, not only full stops. For example, ‹er› were replaced with ‹ɔ›, as in ‹mastɔ› for master.[3]
Abbreviations are used to save time and space, and to make long names of organi-zations and long technical terms easier to remember and less boring to refer to repeatedly in an extended piece of writing such as a newspaper article or textbook.
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while, orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing. For instance, sec. - second, D.M.- Doctor of Medicine. These are English origin. But when we use graphical abbreviations of Latin origin in the spelling we shorten Latin words, while orally we pronounce English equivalents in the full form: p.a.-a year (per annum), lb - pound (libra), i. e.-that is (id est) etc. Initial abbreviations are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations.
There are three types of initialisms in English:
a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, MPA, CND etc.
b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. : UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc. c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer-based Laboratory for Automated School System).
We may unite group b and c into one group, which we call acronyms. Some scien-tists accept it, but others not. All acronyms are abbreviations, but not all abbreviations are acronyms.
Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. E.g.: intro (introduction), copter (helicopter), fanzine (fan magazine), tec (detective). [4]
The abbreviations are the most intensively developing units of English. There is the distinctive interest to them in modern linguistics. Abbreviations, the subject of our analysis, make our life easier. However, when using them, we shouldn’t overdo it.
The more we use abbreviations the more our text will be vague to read. We should introduce an abbreviation only if: 1. the term appear at least three times in each part of our work; and 2. the term consists of at least three words. There are also some abb-reviations that are better known than the words they stand for and do not have to be explained in the text or added to the list of abbreviations. E.g.: AIDS (acquired immu-nodeficiency syndrome), CD-ROM( compact disk read only memory),PIN(personal identification number), UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund).If an abbreviation is better known than the spelled-out form, we may give the abbreviation even if the term is used only once.[2,1]
Some acronyms are truly “hidden names”. They are spelled out and treated as ordinary words and follow the capitalization rules. After a while we may even forget that they were once special creations:
Scuba= Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus Radar=Radio Detecting And Ranging
Laser=Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
great fun pointing to the acronym formed by the initials of the Committee to Re-Elect the President: CREEP.[1,5]
Stunt acronyms, which are created for a specific, often political purpose can help groups get attention. For instance, MADD -Mothers Against Drunk Driving. CAVE- Citizens Against Virtually Everything. These stunt acronyms are not the problem. They can be useful and even entertaining. Acronyms can be handy. The real problem lies with initial abbreviations, the greatest destroyer of meaning in modern publications. Most initial abbreviations are difficult to understand.
Every business, school, laboratory and agency has its own language, which consists of unique abbreviations. For instance, to the Shipping Department the abbreviation “QA” may mean “Quick Action”, while for the Manufacturing Department, “QA” means “Quality Assurance”. “CD” may refer to “certificate of deposit” in Accounting, “coefficient drag” in Engineering and “Compact disk” everywhere else. Whenever possible we should avoid using abbreviations.
Of course, if you are using a common abbreviation such as PC to mean personal computer and the context makes this clear, there's no real problem. But if you are using it for another term, such as: Postal Clerk or Production Control, then such a common abbreviation can still be a problem. The abbreviation PC means different things to different groups. In Law: probable cause, physical containment, personally corrupt, police constable. In Medicine: peripheral clarity, perforated cranium, prostate cancer. In Military: power converter, production control, pass certified, Peace Corps. Not only common people, but also inexperienced members of any organization may misunderstand an abbreviation or acronym. For example the “Federal Highway Administration” has a program known as “ISTEA” (pronounced “ice tea”). Naturally enough, the acronym gets spelled as “ICE TEA”(1,6)
Such confusion shows that these writers don’t really understand the term. Because they clearly don’t know what the letters stand for, they only want to sound learned, well-informed. But in reality, the words forming this acronym is - Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act.
To eliminate the problems mentioned above we want to introduce the following solutions:
1. We should better avoid abbreviations as many as possible. 2. We may use them only if they are convenient for our readers.
All readers must know exactly what we mean. Spelling abbreviations out may irritate our readers.
3. Converting abbreviations into words as many as possible is also the effective way. We should prefer to use the full words - Vice President, not VP.
It would be suitable to use an alternative - computer's memory, not RAM (Random Access Memory).
(computer-based training).But if the abbreviation is familiar to the reader, there is no need to spell it out. For example, if we write to a government official, we would not need to spell out any of the abbreviations in the following sentence: The CIA has examined FAA’s security procedures at US airports.
5. We should better not use periods or stops between letters. The modern trend is to leave out the periods or stops in abbreviations and acronyms.
For example: U.S.A. or USA. Both of them are true, but let’s try to prefer the second one.
I want to finish the paper with the words of Confucius:
If language is not correct then what is said is not what is meant;
If what is said is not what is meant, then what ought to be done remains undone...
REFERENCES
1. Dr. Helen Moody, “A Modest Proposal to Eliminate Acronyms”, Professional Training Company, Corrales, New Mexico, 1996-2005
2. Handbook of Style and Usage, 2011 edition. 3. referat.allserver.ru
COINING NEW WORDS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Aynur Abbaszade
Undergraduate student Qafqaz University
ABSTRACT
Conforming circumstances every language has transition because of time requirements. So English language had some changes due to various reasons from the time it was created until today and its lexicon also changed. It can be considered as an advantage but sometimes entering of new words or coining neo-logisms in language can be out of control. Then the miserable picture we will get is inevitable. Basically, the formation history of English language, entering and coining process of new words, pros and cons of this matter were represented in this article.
Key words: Middle English, Early Modern English, Late Modern English, The Latest and Unsuccessful Neologisms, Virtual Words.
İngilis dili adlandırdığımız dil ilk dəfəİngiltərənin Şimal dənizi sahillərinə eramızın V-VI əsrlərində Danimarka, indiki Almaniya və Niderlandın şimal-qərbindən olan də -nizçilər tərəfindən gətirilmişdir. Bu immiqrantlar Hind-Avropa dili ailəsinin German qoluna mənsub olan əlaqəli dialektlərdə danışırdılar. Onların dili German dillərindən ayrıldıqdan sonra öz fərqləndirici xüsusiyyətlərini inkişaf etdirməyə başladı və eramızın 600-cü illərindən indi bizim adlandırdığımız kimi “Qədim İngilis Dili” və ya “Anqlo-Sakson” olaraq inkişaf edərək müasir İngiltərənin çox böyük ərazisini əhatə etdi.
minlərlə söz daxil oldu və onun qrammatikası da həmçinin kəskin dəyişikliklərə məruz qaldı, lakin sonralar aristokratiyanın ingilis dilini öz dilləri olaraq qəbul etməsi fransız dilinin istifadəsini tədricən sona çatdırdı. İstiladan dilin dirçəlməsinə qədər olan dövrdə istifadə olunan ingiliscə “Orta Dövr İngilis Dili” adlanır.
İngilis dilinin sözlər axınına məruz qaldığı və “Erkən Müasir İngilis Dili”nin möv-cud olduğu dövr təxminən 1500-1800-cü illəri əhatə edir. Bu dövrdə ingilis dili səs dəyişmələri, sintaktik formalaşmalar və leksik zənginləşmə keçirmişdir. Bundan əlavə XVI-XVII əsrlərdə yaşamış dramaturq V.Şekspirin də ingilis dilinin zənginləşməsində böyük rolu olmuşdur. Şekspir heç vaxt “doğru” olaraq qəbul edilmiş lüğətdən istifadə etməməmiş, dilin daha artığına qadir olduğuna inanaraq ona yeni sözlər əlavə etməyə çalışmışdır. O ingilis dilinə 1700-dən çox yeni söz gətirmişdir. O sözlərin çoxu bu gün də istifadə olunur və həmin sözlərin üzərində asanlıqla isimdən felə, sifətdən felə və s. çevrilmələr aparmaq mümkündür. Məsələn: mimic, negotiate, torture, champion, rant, bedroom, obscene, assaissination, accused, generous və s.
1500-1800-cü illəri əhatə edən Erkən Müasir İngilis dili və 1800-cü ildən bu günə kimi istifadə olunan Son Müasir İngilis dili arasında bəzi fərqlər var. XV-XVIII əsrlərdə dilin daha çox formasında dəyişikliklər oldu. Britaniyalıların ətraf ölkələrlə olan sıx ticarət və iqtisadi əlaqələri dilə yeni söz və frazalar gətirdi. Son Müasir İngilis dilinin əhatə etdiyi dövrdə isə dildə neologizmlərin yaranma mənbələri və sayı fərqlidir. Sözü gedən dövrdə ingilis dili iki əsas səbəbdən neologizmlər qazanıb. Birincisi sənayedəki inqilab, texnologiyanın inkişafı ilə əlaqədar olaraq, ikinci isə Britaniya imperiyasının bu zaman kəsiyində dünyanın demək olar ki, dörddə bir hissəsi üzərindəki hakimiyyəti onun xarici ölkələrdən daha çox söz götürməsinə səbəb olmuşdur.
Dünya dəyişir və qaçılmaz olaraq lüğət tərkibi də dəyişikliyə uğrayır. İyirmi il bundan əvvəl insanlar “noob”, “twitter”, “facebook” sözləri haqda heç nə bilmirdi. Hal-hazırda isə ingilis dili söz yaratma partlayışı yaşamaqdadır. Bəzi yeni sözlər yazılışca bəzən heç sözə də bənzəmir. Məsələn: “noob” sözü virtual aləmdə istifadə olunur və “yeni istifadəçi” anlamına gəlir, amma bəzən internet istifadəçiləri bu sözü “noob” olaraq deyil, “o”hərfini “0” rəqəmi iləəvəz edərək “n00b” şəklində yazmağa üstünlük verir.
Müasir dövrdə dilin söz mənbələri tamam fərqlidir. Məsələn: yeni yaranan idman terminləri, siyasi dəyişikliklər və ya virtual dünyada işlənən sözlər. Bütün bunları nə -zərə alsaq dildə olan sözlərin sayını müəyyənləşdirmənin mümkünsüzlüyü reallığını anlayarıq.
Oxford lüğəti müxtəlif sahələrdə baş verən dəyişiklikləri əks etdirmək məqsədi ilə daim yenilənir, lakin əlavə olunan bəzi sözlər insanları gələcəkdə dilin necə olacağına dair qorxuya salır. Lüğətə daxil edilmiş uğursuz neologizmlərdən bəziləri:
Blamestorming- Heç kimin məsuliyyətini üzərinə götürmədiyi bir günahı kollek-tivin bir nəfərin üzərinə atması metodu anlamına gəlir. Bu sözün uğursuz olma səbəbi ona dildə gərəyin olmamasıdır, çünki bu sözü əvəz edən “blame” sözü artıq mövcuddur və bu fikri tam ifadə edir. Başqa səbəb isə “blamestorming” sözü “brainstorming” sö-zünün bir növ təqlidi olaraq yaradılmasıdır ki, bu da gülüş doğurur.
Threequel- Hansısa bir kitabın, filmin və s. üçüncü hissəsi anlamına gəlir. Bu söz bütün hallarda işlənə bilmədiyi üçün doğru sayılmır, çünki “-quel” hissəciyini digər rəqəmlərəəlavə etdikdə tələffüzdə çətinliklər yaranır.
Bu misallardan aydın şəkildə görmək olar ki, heç də dilə daxil edilmiş sözlərin hamısı mükəmməl şəkildə düşünülməmişdir. Lingvistik nöqteyi-nəzərdən dil kommu-nikasiya üçün ən sadə vasitədir. Yeni ideyalar və konsepsiyalar dilə nüfuz edərkən o kommunikasiyanı asanlaşdırmaq üçün bu amillərə uyğunlaşmalıdır. Dil ya yeni sözlər qəbul edərək və ya yaradaraq zənginləşə, inkişaf edə bilər, ya da əksinə həmin sözlərin sayəsində bəsitləşib, nizamsızlaşa bilər. Mühüm olan dilə çox sözün daxil olması deyil, dilə uyğunlaşan və dilin uyğunlaşacağı sözlərin daxil edilməsi və istehza doğurmayacaq şəkildə dilin öz imkanları hesabına yeni sözlərin yaradılmasıdır. Bu qaydalara əməl edi-lərək dəyişdirilən və yenilənən dilin daha zəngin olacağına heç bir şübhə ola bilməz.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/history/index.html 2. http://piksels.com/words-invented-by-shakespeare
3. http://www.answers.com/topic/english-language 4. http://www.wordlab.com/
5. http://www.wordinfo.info/words/index/info/view_unit/4214/?letter=E&spage=5
6. http://www.cracked.com/article_17408_15-words-you-won19-t-believe-they-added-to dictionary_ p2. html
INFORMALITY IN AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aynur Huseyneliyeva
Postgraduate student Qafqaz University
ABSTRACT
Language is not an abstract construction of the learned, or of dictionary-makers, but is something arising out of the work, needs, ties, joys, affections, tastes, of long generations of humanity, and has its bases broad and low, close to the ground. Its final decisions are made by the masses, people nearest the concrete, having most to do with actual land and sea. (“Slang in America”, Walt Whitman, 1885)
This research paper contains of some information about idioms, slang, jargons, colloquialism and dialects that are ingredients of informal language and the usage of them in informal American speech.
Key words: informal, slang, idiom, jargon, colloquialism, dialect.
No living language is simply one set of words which can be used the same way in all situations. There are an infinite variety of different ways to arrange the elements of language. It means that we can express the same thing in different ways, depending where we are, who we are talking to and how we feel. We can’t talk to friend’s mother in the same manner we would talk to our friend. We can’t talk to a bartender the same way we would talk to a judge. The degree of formality of the situation in which we are attending, one of the main factor that determine which words and expressions are appropriate in given case.
As Antrushina stated that informal vocabulary is used in one’s immediate circle; family, relatives or friends and this style is relaxed, free and easy, familiar and
unpre-tentious. (“ ”; . . , . , ,
. . . 2004; p.31)Informal language is allowed in our everyday life, such as, while playing sports, while studying with friends, at the party, with close family members, while shopping etc. Informal English gives us a chance to deliver our thoughts easily with simple words, idioms, phrases and so on which are away of difficult cons-tructions.
Tomasz P.Srynaski gave some peculiar characteristics of informal English (http:// www.antimoon.com/how/formal-informal-english.htm):
1. Typically used in “improvised” speech when the speaker is speaking without pre-paration, as in a conversation (in real life or over the phone). It also occurs in writing usually when the writer is writing quickly and without editing. eg; in an internet chat room or in personal e-mails.
2. Sentences are shorter and simpler, eg; Looks like the discounts have actually worked.
3. Informal English contains useful “everyday phrases” like Here you are. Come again?
4. Phrasal verbs are used frequently. People prefer to say found out instead of disco-vered, got away instead of escaped.
5. Words and phrases are sometimes pronounced in a shortened and simplified way, eg; Lemme go! Whassup? Whatch a gonna do?
“An informal style approximates the cadence and structure of spoken English while conforming to the grammatical conventions of written English. "(G.J.Alred, C.T.Brusaw, and W. E. Oliu, Handbook of Technical Writing, 9th ed. St. Martin's Press, 2008)
Prof. Argenis A.Zapata (2008) stated that vocabulary use of informal English is somehow liberal and includes lots of cliches, colloquialisms, idioms, phrasal verbs, proverbs and slang.
Since the meanings of idioms cannot be derived compositionally by the morpho-syn-tactic rules of a language (e.g. the meaning of kick the bucket cannot be derived from the meanings of the words ‘kick’, ‘the’ and‘bucket’), the standard belief is that they too must be arbitrarily stipulated in memory .(Chomsky, 1980; Cruse, 1986; Fraser, 1970; Katz 1973).
Most idioms are fixed and it’s impossible to change the order of its elements. It’s allowed to make substitutions of synonymous words into idioms without loss of their idiomaticity. For example, in the idiom John gave up the ghost (= John died), we cannot replace ghost by apparition.
For most idioms, we can establish some relation between their meaning and their form. In fact, the meanings of an idiom's elements often play a role in the way we use and understand idiom strings in conversation (Cacciari, 1993; Cacciari & Glucksberg, 1991; Gibbs, 1990; Gibbs & Nayak, 1989; Gibbs et al, 1989 a, b ; Keysar & Bly, 1995, 1999)
Most idioms are single items of vocabulary and they are language and culture speci-fic. So they make sense or meaning mainly to the speakers of a given language or the members of a given culture and they can’t be translated word for word into other lan-guages.
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007) defines slang as “very informal words and expressions that are more common in spoken language, especially used by a particular group of people; for example, children, criminals, soldiers etc.
According to Keith Allan and Kate Burridge: "The most significant characteristic of slang overlaps with a defining characteristic of jargon: slang is a marker of in-group solidarity, and so it is a correlate of human groups with shared experiences, such as being children at a certain school or of a certain age, or being a member of a certain socially definable group, such as hookers, junkies, jazz musicians, or professional crimi-nals." (Keith Allan and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006)
Carl Sandburg gives more metaphorical definition: "Slang is a language that rolls up its sleeves, spits on its hands, and goes to work." (Carl Sandburg)
"Slang serves the outs as a weapon against the ins. To use slang is to deny allegiance to the existing order, either jokingly or in earnest, by refusing even the words which represent conventions and signal status” (James Sledd, "On Not Teaching English Usage." The English Journal, Nov. 1965)
As we know most people are individuals who desire uniqueness, it stands to reason that slang has been in existence. Even so the question of why slang develops within a language has been debated. The Historical Dictionary of American Slang points out that many groups “use slang largely because they lack political power”. It’s simply a safe and effective way that people rebel against the establishment.
Jargon is similar to slang - it is a specific set of words and phrases which are unique to a small group of people. Jargon is work-related slang.
"Jargon is the verbal sleight of hand that makes the old hat seem newly fashionable; it gives an air of novelty and specious profundity to ideas that, if stated directly, would seem superficial, stale, frivolous, or false." (David Lehman)
Jonathan Guthrie called jargon poetry of modern business: "Jargon is the epic poetry of modern business. It can turn a bunch of windbags in a meeting room into a 'quick wins taskforce.' I once asked a handyman toiling in an office doorway whether he was installing a wheelchair ramp. 'No,' he said solemnly, 'it's a diversity access feature.'" (Jonathan Guthrie, "Three Cheers for the Epic Poetry of Jargon." Financial Times, Dec. 13, 2007)
"Generally, when people use jargon not to communicate but to impress their audien-ces with their importance . . . or use it to announce membership in a group, communi-cation suffers and the jargon can quickly degenerate into something close to the twitte-ring of birds."(W. Lutz, "Jargon." Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1992) Most of the time, jargon evolves because the people in a certain job need to use certain words and terms which don't mean much to people not working in those areas or with those machines. However, sometimes you get "corporate jargon" in which large companies or offices deliberately create slogans which become jargon-these are usually elaborate ways of saying things which could be said much more simply, and are used so show that you are a "team player."
K. Allen and K. Burridge states that many people think that jargon should be cen-sored. However, close examination of jargon shows that, although some of it is vacuous pretentiousness and its proper use is both necessary and unobjectionable.
Colloquialism would be the language, words and phrases used in casual situations by the people, as opposed to formal language.
“Over the last generation writing has become more informal than it ever was before. The area of highly formal writing has shrunk considerable, like state papers, articles in learned publications, legal documents, court decisions and so on. Other writing has become quite hospitable to so -called colloquialism, it has become more informal, more relaxed, more familiar, more casual”. (Theodore Bernstein, The Careful Writer. Simon & Schuster, 1995)
A really good example would be to look at the way different people refer to carbonated drinks - in the United States, we can tell where you are from by how you ask for your beverage! People in the northeastern and middle states call it "pop," while people in the western states say "soda." People in the south ask for a "coke" or for "dope!" According to November publication of “Time” magazine (1954) The United States colloquialisms evolve slowly. 'Jag,' 'tops,' 'dude' stayed around for decades before they began to lose their freshness” ("Far-Out Words for Cats" Time magazine, Nov. 8, 1954)
at shops etc. but not used at offices, educational institutions, formal conversations, or media.
Dialect is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the language. The scientific study of dialects is known as dialectology.
"Some people think of dialects as sub-standard varieties of a language, spoken only by low-status groups--illustrated by such comments as 'He speaks correct English, without a trace of dialect.' Comments of this kind fail to recognize that standard English is as much a dialect as any other variety--though a dialect of a rather special kind, because it is one to which society has given extra prestige. Everyone speaks a dialect-whether urban or rural, standard or non-standard, upper class or lower class." (D. Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook, 2006)
Conclusion
This study allowed me to find out information about informal English of America. I was able to know how people use informal elements like slang, idioms, jargons and so on in their everyday speech. As we know people prefer changes and being special. They maintain it in their speech as well and avoid using trite phrases, expressions and word-combinations. English language is very rich and one can express his or her thoughts in numerous ways. So people use some idioms, slang, and jargons in their speech in order to avoid monotonous utterance and such elements of informal language make speech more vivid. All languages are developing continuously and it creates favorable condition for invention of new words to make speech more colorful.
REFERENCES
1. “Slang in America”, Walt Whitman, 1885.
2. “ ” ; . . , . , , . . . 2004; p.31
3. G.J.Alred, C.T.Brusaw, and W.E.Oliu, Handbook of Technical Writing, 9th ed. St. Martin's Press, 2008 4. Chomsky, 1980; Cruse, 1986; Fraser, 1970; Katz 1973
5. Cacciari & Glucksberg, 1991; Nunberg et al, 1994
6. Keith Allan and Kate Burridge, Forbidden Words. Cambridge Univ. Press, 2006 7. The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2007)
8. Historical Dictionary of American Slang
9. James Sledd, "On Not Teaching English Usage." The English Journal, Nov. 1965
10. Jonathan Guthrie, "Three Cheers for the Epic Poetry of Jargon." Financial Times, Dec. 13, 2007 11. W. Lutz, "Jargon." Oxford Companion to the English Language, 1992
12. Theodore Bernstein, The Careful Writer. Simon & Schuster, 1995 13. “Far-Out Words for Cats” Time magazine, Nov. 8, 1954
14. Neil Rafferty, "Queen Opens a Pricey Piece of Scots History." The Sunday Times, Oct. 10, 2004 15. D. Crystal, How Language Works. Overlook, 2006
16. http://grammar.about.com/od/classicessays/a/whitmanslang.htm (12.02.2012) 17. http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_colloquial_language (12.02.2012) 18. http://www.antimoon.com/how/formal-informal-english.htm
20. http://www.englisch-hilfen.de/en/words_list/idioms.htm (17.02.2012) 21. http://www.quotecosmos.com/quotes/21539/view
DIFFERENCES IN EDUCATIONAL TERMINOLOGY IN
BRITISH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
Aytan Valiyeva
Postgraduate student Qafqaz UniversityABSTRACT
The English language is the most widely spoken of the Germanic languages. More than one billion people use this language as a native or a secondary language. As a matter of fact, such a large number of people all around the world speak English means that there’re many dialects and varieties. No human language is fixed, uniform, or unvarying; all languages show internal variation. Actual usage varies from group to group, and speaker to speaker, in terms of the pronunciation of a language, the choice of words and the meaning of those words. The two major varieties used by people that have English as a native language are British English and American English. Between British English and American English there are different variations of vocabulary, spelling and phonology. Probably, the major differences between these two varieties lies in the choice of vocabulary. This article compares the forms of British and American English vocabulary in the area of education are mainly reflected on the fields of school, university and some general terms.
Key words: British English, American English, school, public school, college, student, pupil, professor, graduate, take an exam.
There is a difference between American and British usage in the word school. In British usage school by itself refers only to primary and secondary schools and to sixth forms attached to secondary schools - if one "goes to school", this type of institution is implied. By contrast an American student at a university may talk of "going to school" or "being in school". US law students and medical students almost universally speak in terms of going to "law school" and "med school", respectively.
While comparing school years in British (except Scotland) and American English we can notice that the secondary school in the United States also includes middle school or junior high school which is two or three year transitional school between elementary and high school. Let’s pay attention the difference in the definition of public school in these two countries. It is government-owned and supported by taxpayers in the US, while in the UK it refers to ill-defined private independent schools funded by students’ fees. However, those schools supported by government are called state school in the UK.1
and economics" though in the UK "faculty" is more often used. Institutions in the US that offer two to four years of post-high school education often have the word college as part of their name, while those offering more advanced degrees are called a university. Among high-school and college students in the United States, the words freshman, sophomore, junior and senior refer to the first, second, third, and fourth years respectively. Many institutes in both countries also use the term first-year as a gender-neutral rep-lacement for freshman, although in the US this is recent usage, formerly referring only to those in the first year as a graduate student. One exception is the University of Virginia; since its founding in 1819 the terms "first-year", "second-year", "third-year", and "fourth-year" have been used to describe undergraduate university students. In the UK first-year university students are sometimes called freshers early in the academic year; however, there aren’t specific names neither for those in other years, nor for school pupils. Graduate and professional students in the United States are known by their year of study, such as a "second-year medical student" or a "fifth-year doctoral candidate."
In the UK a university student is said “to study”, “to read or informally to do” a subject. In the recent past the expression “to read a subject” was more common at the older universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. In the US a student studies or majors in a subject .To major in something refers to the student's principal course of study; to study may refer to any class being taken.2
At university level in BrE, each module is taught by a lecturer or tutor; professor
is the job-title of a senior academic. In AmE each class is generally taught by a professor (although some US tertiary educational institutions follow the BrE usage). A British
professoris not exactly equivalent to a US professor,because the latter category divides into three levels: full professor, associate professor,and assistant professor. In the UK, the ranks belowprofessor are reader,then senior lecturer(though some universities treat thesegrades as equivalent in salary, but different in function), then lecturer.3
In the UK, a student is said to sit or take an exam, while in the U.S., a student takes
an exam. The expression he sits for an exam also arises in BrE, but only rarely in AmE. American lawyers-to-be sit for their bar exams and American master's and doctoral students may sit for their comprehensive exams, but in nearly all other instances, Americans take their exams. When preparing for an exam students revise (BrE)/review
(AmE) what they have studied.
In the US anyone who finishes studying at any educational institution by passing relevant examinations is said to graduate and to be a graduate, but in the UK only degree and above level students can graduate. These days student itself has a wider meaning in AmE. It is used more and more for people studying above the primary school level, but pupil is still used in secondary school contexts as well. Pupil is understood in AmE, but generally not used - all learners in institutions of education are
Of two major varieties of English, American English has begun to influence the English spoken in Europe. Nevertheless, British English is still dominant in the schools and universities. Furthermore, most teachers speak British English and most educational material is based on the British English variety.
END NOTE
1. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1971. S. v., “public education”. 2. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_Englishdifferences#Education
3. O. . , . . .
. p103.
REFERENCES
1. Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1971. S. v., “public education”. 2. En.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_and_British_Englishdifferences#Educatio
3. O. . , . . .
. p103.
COMPARISON RELATING TO LANGUAGE SIMILARITIES
BETWEEN THE TURKISH AND JAPANESE LANGUAGES
Emine KOSE
Undergraduate student Qafqaz University
ABSTRACT
The goal of this study is to explain similarities between the Turkish and Japanese languages. According to my research these two languages have similar property and also comes from paralel roots.This research is support The Japanese and Turkish languages include similar words. All similarty is sign that, these two different languages have language relationship.Language relationship and old roots are support to connection between The Japanese and Turkish Languages.
Key Words:The Japanese Language and Turkish Languages, Similar Property, Similar Roots, Similar words, Language Relationship.
Bugün dünyada 220 milyona yakın insan Türk Dilini konuşmakta ve yaşatmaktadır. Türkçe dünyada en fazla konuşulan dil olarak 15.sırada yer almaktadır. Türk dili ya-pılan sıralandırmalarda Altay dilleri kümesine sokulur. Altay dilleri de Ural-Altay dil ailesi içinde sayılır.Mehmet Fuat Bozkurtun ele aldığı makaleye göre, bu alanda ilk araştırma yapan İsveçli Philipp Von Strahlenberg'dir. İlk gereçleri Avrupa ve Asya'nın
Kuzeyi ile Doğu Bölümleri adlı kitabında verilmiştir.
