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Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
1 0 / 1 [1999] 3 7 –4 0 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0956-6163]
An analysis of the remediation of oil contaminated
refinery sites
J.J.W. M ol
Witte ve e n+Bo s , Co ns ulting Engine e rs , Van Twic ke lo s traat 2 , De ve nte r, The Ne the rlands
Keywords
Co ntaminatio n, Enviro nme nt, Oil indus try
Abstract
Pe tro c he mic al and re fining o pe ra-tio ns c an c aus e s e ve re e nviro n-me ntal damage due to e mmis io ns to s o il, air and gro und- and s urfac e wate r. The ge ne ral frame -wo rk fo r re me dial ac tio ns is primarily de te rmine d by the le gal frame wo rk and the ac tual ris ks as s o c iate d with le ve ls o f c o ntami-nants pre s e nt at a s ite . Within the bas ic frame wo rk o f le gal pro c e -dure s , s ite s pe c ific c o ns traints and e c o no mic mo tive s , the be s t available te c hnique s (BAT) fo r re me dial ac tio n will have to be e valuate d. In mo s t c as e s this is part o f an o ve rall e nviro nme ntal impro ve me nt and inve s tme nt pro gram fo r a fac ility. This pape r de s c ribe s the ge ne ral bac kgro und o f s o il re me diatio n at re fine rie s and pro vide s an o ve rvie w o f applic able re me dial te c hno lo gie s .
Introduction
St r in gen t en v ir on m en t a l a n d sa fet y r e gu la -t ion s a r e a p p lied -t o a ll oil a n d ga s r ela -t ed a ct iv it ies w it h in E u r op e (E u r op ea n Com m ission , 1996). T h ese in clu d e r e gu la t ion s con -cer n in g con t a m in a t ed la n d , oil sp ills a n d d isch a r ges of cu t t in gs a n d oil m u d .
Sin ce t h e m a r gin s on r efi n in g a n d d ist r ibu -t ion a c-t iv i-t ies h ave b een w ea k in r ecen -t yea r s, m ost oil com p a n ies exa m in e t h eir r efi n in g a n d d ist r ibu t ion a ct iv it ies ver y closely. As a r esu lt , a n u m b er of r efi n er ies w it h in E u r op e a r e b ein g closed , w h ile ot h er s a r e b ein g m od er n ised or b r ou gh t b a ck in t o op er a t ion . T h ese a ct iv it ies on r efi n er y sit es t oget h er w it h t h e m or e st r in gen t con t a m i-n a t ed la i-n d le gisla t ioi-n r esu lt s ii-n a i-n ii-n cr ea s-in g d em a n d for cost -effect ive con su lt a n cy a n d r em ed ia l ser v ices. T h is p a p er sh ow s t h e gen er a l en v ir on m en t a l a n d econ om ica l b a ck -gr ou n d for r em ed ia l a ct ion s a t r efi n er y sit es a n d su ggest s t h e a p p lica t ion of st a t e of t h e a r t cost -effect ive r em ed ia l t ech n ologies.
Industry background
T h e oil r efi n in g in d u st r y m a n u fa ct u r es r efi n ed p et r oleu m p r od u ct s (e.g. n a p h t h a , ga solin e, av ia t ion fu els, ga soil, lu b r ica n t s) fr om cr u d e oils or sem i-fi n ish ed p et r oleu m feed st ock s. T r en d s in p r od u ct ion fr om E u r o-p ea n r efi n er ies in gen er a l follow t h e o-p a t t er n of m a r k et d em a n d (see Ta ble I). Sin ce t h e ea r ly 1980s t h e r efi n in g in d u st r y a d a p t ed it self ver y w ell t o t h e n eed s of t h e m a r k et , b ot h by b r in gin g p r od u ct ion ca p a cit y in t o lin e w it h d em a n d a n d a lso by in vest in g in n ew p r od u ct ion p r ocesses t o en su r e a b r oa d m ix of p r od u ct s w h ich su it t h e m a r k et .
E n v ir on m en t a l p r essu r es on r efi n in g a n d d ist r ibu t ion a ct iv it ies in cr ea sed a s t h e E U com m it t ed it self t o st a b ilisin g CO2ou t p u t a t t h e 1990 levels (E u r op ea n Com m ission , 1991; 1997b ; 1998). Also t h e t r en d t ow a r d s a r ed u c-t ion of em ission s of c-t oxic su b sc-t a n ces, su ch a s SO2, N Ox, CH4, p a r t icu la t es a n d VOCs (vola t ile or ga n ic com p ou n d s) h a s a sign ifi -ca n t econ om ic im p a ct on t h e r efi n in g in d u s-t r y (E u r op ea n Com m ission , 1997a ; IP P C Dir ect ive, 1996). In or d er t o a d d r ess
en v ir on m en t a l a sp ect s of t h e oil r efi n in g p r ocess p r op er ly, en v ir on m en t a l m a n a gem en t p r oced u r es (e.g. on w a st e w a t er ) a r e im p le-m en t ed . Best ava ila ble t ech n iq u es (BAT) h ave b een for m u la t ed for oil r efi n in g p r ocesses. E n v ir on m en t a l a u t h or isa t ion s of in d iv id u a l r efi n er ies in clu d e a ir em ission n or m s a n d ot h er r eq u ir em en t s b a sed on BAT.
E n v ir on m en t a l com p lia n ce d oes r eq u ir e h eav y in vest m en t s by r efi n er ies. T h e com b i-n a t ioi-n of h igh ii-n vest m ei-n t s ii-n ei-n v ir oi-n m ei-n t a l com p lia n ce, n ew p r od u ct s a n d t ech n ology a n d w ea k m a r gin s on r efi n er y p r od u ct s, r esu lt in a close exa m in a t ion of cu r r en t a ct iv it ies a n d fu t u r e op p or t u n it ies by t h e oil com p a n ies. De p en d in g on com p a n y st r a t e gy, t h is r esu lt s in closu r e, exp a n sion or d iver sifi -ca t ion of r efi n er ies. E xa m p les a r e t h e m er g-in g of r efi n g-in g a n d r et a ilg-in g a ct iv it ies of BP a n d Mob il, t h e closu r e of t h e BP r efi n er y in Laver a (F r a n ce) a n d t h e Gu lf a n d E xxon r efi n er ies in Wa les.
Legal framework
N a t ion a l soil q u a lit y le gisla t ion h a s d evelop ed in m ost E u r evelop ea n cou n t r ies (see Ap p en -d ix). In ca se of con t a m in a t e-d la n -d in m ost ca ses a r isk b a sed a p p r oa ch is ch osen . Risk -b a sed soil q u a lit y st a n d a r d s t en d t o -b ecom e in t e gr a t ed in n a t ion a l or r e gion a l p la n n in g a n d bu ild in g r e gu la t ion s.
T h e a ct u a l r isk s a ssocia t ed w it h con t a m i-n a t ed la i-n d m ay, u i-n d er cir cu m st a i-n ces, b e p r a ct ica lly n e gligible. In t h ese ca ses n o fu ll-sca le r em ed ia t ion w ill b e n ecessa r y a n d t h e la n d st ill m ay b e u sed for cer t a in p u r p oses (e.g. h eav y in d u st r y ). N a t ion a l or r e gion a l le gisla t ion or gu id elin es give t h e fr a m ewor k for t h e a ct u a l u se of soils a n d su b su r fa ce. Rem ed ia l a ct ion s a r e a w ay of r est or in g t h e in t en d ed u se of la n d . For r efi n er y sit es E U r e gu la t ion s a n d p er m it s m ay give a d d it ion a l st a n d a r d s or gu id elin es.
Remedial approach
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n or m a l op er a t ion s a s a r esu lt of a ir em ission s, sm a ll sca le sp ills, ou t d a t ed t ech n ology (su r -p lu s of w a st e -p r od u ct ion a n d em ission s). Soil of gr ou n dw a t er a t r efi n er ies is oft en con t a m i-n a t ed by oil p r od u ct s (lu b r ica i-n t s, h eav y a i-n d ligh t fu els), VOCs (m a in ly vola t ile a r om a t ics), PAH (p olycyclic a r om a t ic h yd r oca r b on s) a n d m et a ls (a / o. lea d ). Most r isk s a r e a ssocia t ed w it h m ob ile com p ou n d s, su ch a s VOCs a n d ligh t fu els, sin ce t h ese com p ou n d s m igh t m igr a t e off sit e or lea ch ou t in t o gr ou n dw a t er or su r fa ce w a t er sy st em s. Also off-sit e d isp osa l of w a st e m a t er ia ls (e.g. slu d ge) in p u blic la n d fi lls a r e con sid er ed a r isk . However t h e r em ed ia l a p p r oa ch of off-sit e la n d fi lls is con sid er ed a n issu e sep a r a t e fr om t h e t r ea t m en t of r efi n er y sit es.
Th e r em edia l a ppr oa ch on a r efi n in g fa cility is site specifi c a n d depen ds on fa ctor s su ch a s: • n a t ion a l a n d r e gion a l le gisla t ion ;
• b a ck gr ou n d of r em ed ia t ion (fu ll-sca le r est or a t ion of sit e com p a r ed t o loca l sp ills a t op er a t ion a l fa cilit ies);
• levels of a n d r isk s a ssocia t ed w it h con t a m i-n a i-n t s;
• h yd r ogeologica l set t in gs; • econ om ic fa ct or s.
T h e gen er a l fr a m ewor k for r em ed ia l a ct ion s is p r im a r ily d et er m in ed by t h e le ga l fr a m e-wor k a n d t h e a ct u a l r isk s a ssocia t ed w it h levels of con t a m in a n t s p r esen t a t a sit e. Wh en a m a jor con t a m in a t ion is d et ect ed , gr ou n d -w a t er a n d su r fa ce -w a t er s a r e a t r isk a n d a fu ll r est or a t ion of a sit e is obliga t or y, a cost ly r em ed ia t ion m ay b e t h e r esu lt . On t h e ot h er h a n d , a t n ew r efi n er y sit es w it h on ly m in or sp illin g a n d clayey su b soil, n o a ct u a l clea n u p m ay b e n ecessa r y.
Sin ce m ost r efi n er ies a r e loca t ed in in d u s-t r ia l a r ea s or w ill con s-t in u e s-t o b e in op er a s-t ion , con t a m in a t ed la n d a t m ost r efi n er y sit es w ill b e eva lu a t ed on t h e b a sis of a r isk a ssess-m en t . T h is a lso ssess-m ea n s t h a t r essess-m ed ia l st r a t e-gies t en d t o b e focu sed on a r isk r ed u ct ion , r a t h er t h a n a “r em ova l of con t a m in a n t s”. Su ch a r isk r ed u ct ion m ay b e q u a n t ifi ed on t h e b a sis of exp osu r e or m igr a t ion ca lcu la -t ion s d u r in g -t h e r isk a ssessm en -t . Mos-t
im m ob ile com p ou n d s (e.g. h eav y m et a ls, PAH ) ju st w ill b e con t a in ed in or d er t o lim it exp osu r e, w h ile m ob ile com p ou n d s (e.g. VOCs) w ill b e r em oved or a ct ively con t r olled .
Rem ed ia t ion of con t a m in a t ed la n d is a n econ om ic fa ct or a n d even t h e t em p or a r y sh u t -d ow n of r efi n er y op er a t ion s in m ost ca ses is n ot a ccep t a ble. Lon g-t er m r em ed ia l a ct iv it ies p r efer a bly w ill h ave t o b e in t e gr a t ed in t h e n or m a l op er a t ion a l p r ocesses.
Remedial technologies
In t h e p a st excava t ion a n d d isp osa l of con t a m -in a t ed soils a n d p u m p -a n d -t r ea t m et h od s for gr ou n dw a t er w er e a cce p t a ble (AGWSE , 1994), t h ou gh in ca se of la r ge-sca le fa cilit ies su ch a s r efi n er ies t h ese w er e ver y cost ly.
Cu r r en t st a t e of t h e a r t r em ed ia l t ech n olo-gies a r e p r im a r ily d ir ect ed t ow a r d s a r isk r ed u ct ion r a t h er t h a n a fu ll-sca le clea n u p p r ocess. In situt ech n ologies su ch a s “n a t u r a l a t t en u a t ion ” (E ssa id et a l., 1995) fi t ver y well in t o t h is r isk -b a sed a p p r oa ch . However, b efor e im p lem en t in g su ch in situm et h od s on e h a s t o h ave a t h or ou gh k n ow led ge of t h e h yd r ogeology, b iogeoch em ist r y a n d con t a m in a n t b eh av -iou r in t h e su b su r fa ce. Of cor se, in cer t a in ca ses (e.g. r em ova l of h ot sp ot s or sou r ce zon es) excava t ion of con t a m in a t ed soil w ill b e t h e b est op t ion . Th ou gh by a ssessin g t h e p os-sib ilit ies for a n in situa p p r oa ch in a n ea r ly st a ge of t h e p r oject , t h e cost s for r em ed ia t ion ca n b e r ed u ced sign ifi ca n t ly (US E PA, 1994).
T h e m a in a dva n t a ges of in situt ech n ologies a r e:
• m in im isa t ion of im p a ct on on goin g op er a -t ion s;
• op t im u m u se of in t r in sic (n a t u r a l) d e gr a d a -t ion of com p ou n d s;
• r ed u ct ion of r em ed ia l cost s.
In situt ech n ology ca n b e d iv id ed in t o t h r ee m a in gr ou p s:
• ext r a ct ive t ech n iq u es (p u m p -a n d -t r ea t ; in fa ct on -sit e t ech n iq u es), su ch a s fl u sh in g, ch em ica l ext r a ct ion , soil va p ou r ext r a ct ion , in -w ell a ir st r ip p in g;
• en er get ic t ech n iq u es (in cr ea se of m ob ilisa -t ion ), su ch a s elec-t r o r ecla m a -t ion , r a d iofr e-q u en cy h ea t in g, fr a ct u r in g;
• b iologica l/ geoch em ica l t ech n iq u es (in situ
d e gr a d a t ion ), su ch a s b ior est or a t ion , b ioven t in g, p h y t or em ed ia t ion , solid ifi ca -t ion a n d n a -t u r a l a -t -t en u a -t ion .
On t h e b a sis of t h e r isk a ssessm en t a fea sib il-it y st u dy focu sin g on t h e r em ed ia l ob ject ives a n d st r a t e gy is ca r r ied ou t . Wit h in t h e b a sic fr a m ewor k of le ga l p r oced u r es, sit e-sp ecifi c con st r a in t s a n d econ om ic m ot ives, t h e b est ava ila ble t ech n iq u es (BAT) for r em ed ia l Table I
Re fining and dis tributio n o f o il pro duc ts (fro m EC, 1 9 9 7 )
M illion tonnes/ year 1992 1993 1994
Belgium 3 4 3 4 3 5
France 9 1 9 1 9 0
Germany 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 3
The Netherlands 6 3 6 0 6 0
UK 9 0 9 0 9 1
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a ct ion a r e eva lu a t ed . In m ost ca ses t h is is p a r t of a n over a ll en v ir on m en t a l im p r ove-m en t a n d in vest ove-m en t p r ogr a ove-m for a fa cilit y.
T h e gen er a l r em ed ia l sch em e for op er a -t ion a l r efi n er y si-t es ca n b e d escr ib ed a s: • id en t ifi ca t ion a n d clea n u p of sou r ce a r ea s; • p r even t ion of off-sit e m igr a t ion of con t a m
i-n a i-n t s;
• clea n u p of ot h er r eleva n t con t a m in a t ed a r ea s.
In situt ech n ologies a r e con sid er ed t o b e t h e m ost va lu a ble in t h e a p p r oa ch of n on -sou r ce a r ea s (N yer et a l., 1996), su ch a s off-sit e gr ou n dw a t er con t a m in a t ion a n d d iffu sive con t a m in a t ed a r ea s. In sou r ce a r ea s (e.g. fl oa t in g LNAP L-layer s) in situt ech n iq u es ca n d ecr ea se t h e levels a n d m a ss of ch em ica ls con sid er a bly. How ever in t h a t ca se a fu ll clea n u p is r a t h er d ifficu lt . Sin ce t h e m a in con t a m i-n a i-n t s a t r efi i-n er ies a r e of a i-n or ga i-n ic i-n a t u r e, b iologica l in situ t ech n ologies a r e ver y p r om isin g. By op t im isa t ion of exist in g fi eld con d it ion s, t h e n a t u r a l d e gr a d a t ion of or ga n ic com p ou n d s (b iologica l a p p r oa ch ) is en h a n ced , or a n en v ir on m en t is cr ea t ed in w h ich fu r t h er m igr a t ion of con t a m in a n t s is lim it ed (geoch em ica l a p p r oa ch ).
Conclusions
Cu r r en t ly, st r in gen t en v ir on m en t a l a n d sa fet y r e gu la t ion s a r e a p p lied t o a ll oil a n d ga s r ela t ed a ct iv it ies w it h in E u r op e. T h ese in clu d e r e gu la t ion s con cer n in g con t a m in a t ed la n d , oil sp ills a n d d isch a r ges of cu t t in gs a n d oil m u d . Th e r em ed ia t ion of con t a m in a t ed la n d on r efi n er y sit es is t h er efor e on ly a p a r t of over a ll en v ir on m en t a l in vest m en t s.
P et r och em ica l a n d r efi n in g op er a t ion s ca n ca u se sever e en v ir on m en t a l d a m a ge d u e t o em ission s t o soil, a ir a n d gr ou n d - a n d su r fa ce w a t er. T h e gen er a l fr a m ewor k for r em ed ia l a ct ion s is p r im a r ily d et er m in ed by t h e le ga l fr a m ewor k a n d t h e a ct u a l r isk s a ssocia t ed w it h levels of con t a m in a n t s p r esen t a t a sit e. On t h e b a sis of t h e r isk a ssessm en t a fea sib il-it y st u dy focu sed on t h e r em ed ia l ob ject ives a n d st r a t e gy is ca r r ied ou t . Wit h in t h e b a sic fr a m ewor k of le ga l p r oced u r es, sit e-sp ecifi c con st r a in t s a n d econ om ic m ot ives, t h e b est ava ila ble t ech n iq u es (BAT) for r em ed ia l a ct ion a r e eva lu a t ed . In m ost ca ses t h is is p a r t of a n over a ll en v ir on m en t a l im p r ove-m en t a n d in vest ove-m en t p r ogr a ove-m for a fa cilit y. In t h e p a st excava t ion a n d d isp osa l of con t a m -in a t ed soils a n d p u m p -a n d -t r ea t m et h od s for gr ou n dw a t er w er e a cce p t a ble, t h ou gh in ca se of la r ge-sca le fa cilit ies su ch a s r efi n er ies ver y cost ly. Cu r r en t st a t e of t h e a r t in situt ech -n ologies a r e p r im a r ily d ir ect ed t ow a r d s a
r isk r ed u ct ion r a t h er t h a n a fu llsca le clea n -u p p r ocess.
References
AGWSE (1994), “Gr ou n d w a t er r em ed ia t ion : exist -in g t ech n ology a n d fu t u r e d ir ect ion ”, Gr ou n d Wa ter, Vol. 32 N o. 5, p p. 837-60.
E ssa id , H.I., Bek in s, B.A., God sy, E .M., Wa r r en , E ., Ba ed eck er, M.J . a n d Cozza r elli, I.M. (1995), “Sim u la t ion of a er ob ic a n d a n a er ob ic b iod e gr a d a t ion p r ocesses a t a cr u d e oil sp ill sit e”, Wa ter R es. R es., Vol. 31 N o. 12, p p. 3309-27. E u r op ea n Com m ission (1991), “Com m u n it y st r a t
-e gy t o lim it ca r b on d ioxid -e -em ission s a n d t o im p r ove en er gy efficien cy ”, S E C(91) 1744 fi n a l, E u r op ea n Com m ission , Br u ssels. E u r op ea n Com m ission (1996), “Re p or t on t h e
sit u a t ion of oil su p p ly, r efi n in g a n d m a r k et s in t h e E u r op ea n Com m u n it y ”, COM (96)143, E u r op ea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
E u r op ea n Com m ission (1997a ), “P a n or a m a of E U In d u st r y 97”, E u r ost a t , Br u ssels.
E u r op ea n Com m ission (1997b ), “Clim a t e ch a n ge – t h e E U a p p r oa ch t o Kyot o”, COM (97) 482, E u r op ea n Com m ission , Br u ssels.
E u r op ea n Com m ission (1998), “Secon d Com m u n i-ca t ion fr om t h e E u r op ea n Com m u n it y u n d er t h e UN fr a m ewor k con ven t ion on clim a t e ch a n ge”, E u r op ea n Com m ission , Br u ssels. IP P C Dir ect ive (1996), “E C Dir ect ive on In t e gr a t ed
P ollu t ion P r even t ion a n d Con t r ol”, Cou n cil Directiv e, N o. 96/ 61, OJ E C L 257/ 26, E u r op ea n Un ion , Br u ssels.
N yer, E .K., Kid d , D.F., P a lm er, P.L., F a m , S., J oh n s, F.J ., Boet t ch er, G. a n d Su t h er sa n , S.S. (1996), In situ T rea tm en t T ech n olog y, Lew is P u blish er s, Boca Ra t on , F L.
US E PA (1994), “In n ova t ive T r ea t m en t Tech n olo-gies: An n u a l St a t u s Re p or t , 6t h E d .”, Tech n ol-ogy In n ova t ion Office, E PA-542-R-94-005.
Appendix: National soil quality legislation
A su m m a r y of cu r r en t n a t ion a l soil q u a lit y le gisla t ion of a n u m b er of E U cou n t r ies is given b elow.Belgium (Flanders)
In F la n d er s, t h e le gisla t ion gover n in g lia b il-it y in r esp ect of soil r em ed ia t ion h a s b een est a blish ed on 22 Feb r u a r y, 1995 w it h t h e p u blica t ion of t h e Decree rela tin g to S oil R em ed ia tion. T h e cen t r a l a u t h or it y con cer n -in g t h is le gisla t ion is t h e P u blic Wa st e Agen cy of F la n d er s (OVAM). T h ey d ea l w it h a ll soil su r vey s a n d con t a m in a t ed sit es. OVAM m u st d r aw u p a r e gist er of con t a m i-n a t ed la i-n d a i-n d p r ov id es soil cer t ifi ca t es u p oi-n r eq u est .
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t h e b a sis of a p er iod icit y for sp ecifi c ca t e-gor ies of est a blish m en t s or op er a t ion s.
Lik e t h e Du t ch , t h e F lem ish a u t h or it ies a p p ly t h e “p ollu t er -p ay s-p r in cip le” for soil a n d gr ou n dw a t er con t a m in a t ion . In ca se of h ist or ica l con t a m in a t ion (or igin a t ed b efor e t h e Decr ee) OVAM a p p lies a r isk -b a sed a p p r oa ch : t h ese k in d s of con t a m in a t ion w ill on ly h ave t o b e h a n d led in ca se of cer t a in or p r ob a ble t h r ea t s for h u m a n s, p la n t s a n d a n i-m a ls. N ew soil con t a i-m in a t ion (or igin a t ed a ft er t h e Decr ee) w ill h ave t o b e clea n ed u p im m ed ia t ely w h en r em ed ia l va lu es a r e exceed ed . All con t a m in a t ed gr ou n d s w ill b e r e gist er ed in t h e Re gist er of Con t a m in a t ed La n d s.
France
As in ot h er E u r op ea n cou n t r ies, in F r a n ce com p r eh en sive p olicy in t h e fi eld of soil con t -a m in -a t ion -a n d cle-a n u p is r el-a t ively you n g. A fi r st in ven t or y of con t a m in a t ed sit es h a s b een est a blish ed in 1994, a n d h a s id en t ifi ed 669 sit es a s con t a m in a t ed . Sit e clea n u p h a s t a k en p la ce sin ce t h e ea r ly 1990s, on a n a d h ocb a sis.
In 1996, a n ew m in ist er ia l cir cu la r w a s pu b-lish ed w it h r e ga r d t o con t a m in a t ed soil. T h e cir cu la r a im s t o com plet e t h e 1994 in ven t or y a n d t o in t r odu ce a com pr eh en sive policy in t h is fi eld. T h e n ew est im a t ion for t h e n u m ber of possibly con t a m in a t ed sit es in F r a n ce w a s t h is t im e in t h e or der of 300,000. A com pr eh en -sive m et h odologica l gu ide h a s been ela bor a t ed t o pr ovide gu ida n ce in t h e soil in vest iga t ion a n d sit e a ssessm en t pr ocedu r e.
In p r in cip le, F r a n ce a p p lies t h e p ollu t er -p ay s--p r in ci-p le for soil r em ed ia t ion . Mu ch r em a in s yet st ill u n clea r. T h e a u t h or it ies cla im t h a t t h e in ven t or ied sit es m u st b e in vest iga t ed on t h e cost s of t h e com p a n y. T h e clea n -u p cost s a r e a lso r e p or t ed t o b e in cu r r ed fu lly by t h e com p a n ies.
Germany
On a st a t e level (B u n d eslä n d er) soil q u a lit y le gisla t ion d a t es fr om t h e ea r ly 1990s. In 1998 t h e Fed er a l Soil P r ot ect ion Act w a s for m a lly issu ed . T h is a ct issu ed n a t ion a l u n ifor m st a n d a r d s for t h e soil p r ot ect ion a n d t h e clea n u p of con t a m in a t ed sit es.
In gen er a l, con t a m in a t ed la n d t h a t con st it u it es a h a za r d it o h u m a n s a n d it h e en v ir on -m en t is t o b e clea n ed u p. T h e r esp on sib ilit y for t h e clea n u p lies p r im a r ily w it h t h e p ol-lu t er (or le ga l su ccessor s) a n d cu r r en t or p r ev iou s ow n er s of t h e la n d .
T h e t a sk s of id en t ifi ca t ion of con t a m in a t ed la n d a n d t h e execu t ion of le ga l p r oced u r es
a r e t h e r esp on sib ilit ies of t h e B u n d eslä n d er. T h e le gisla t ion is p r im a r ily con cer n ed w it h solid soil; in ca se of con t a m in a t ed w a t er b od -ies, a lso w a t er le gisla t ion m ay b e r eleva n t .
The Netherlands
E n v ir on m en t a l le gisla t ion in t h e fi eld of soil a n d gr ou n dw a t er in T h e N et h er la n d s d a t es fr om t h e ea r ly 1980s. Soil a n d gr ou n dw a t er q u a lit y st a n d a r d s h ave b een issu ed by t h e Du t ch gover n m en t in t h e “Soil P r ot ect ion Act ”, p r om u lga t ed on 10 May 1994.
In T h e N et h er la n d s t h e p r ov in cia l a u t h or i-t ies (in clu d in g i-t h e fou r la r gesi-t cii-t ies) d ea l w it h soil q u a lit y m a t t er s. T h ey d ea l w it h m ost of t h e la r ger soil su r vey s a n d con t a m i-n a t ed sit es. Wit h ii-n t h e fr a m ewor k of t h e Bu ild in g a n d P la n n in g Act s a lso t h e loca l com m u n it ies m ay b e in volved in m in or soil q u a lit y a n d r em ed ia l issu es.
Th e Du t ch a u t h or it ies a pply t h e “pollu t er -pays-pr in ciple” for soil a n d gr ou n dw a t er r em edia t ion . However, r espon sibilit y/ lia bilit y qu est ion s r ela t ed t o soil a n d gr ou n dw a t er qu a lit y issu es a r e r a t h er difficu lt a n d t a k e a lot of t im e. Th is for m a l a ppr oa ch r esu lt ed in a st a gn a t ion of t h e Du t ch soil r em edia t ion pr ogr a m . Cu r r en t ly t h e Du t ch le gisla t ion is bein g r e-eva lu a t ed. T h e Du t ch w ill t u r n t o a m or e r isk -ba sed a ppr oa ch . Rem edia l a ct ion s w ill m ove t o a m or e fu n ct ion a l m et h odology, focu sed on t h e (fu t u r e) u se of a con t a m in a t ed sit e. However, n ew soil a n d gr ou n dw a t er con t a m in a t ion st ill h a s t o be r em oved, wh ich oper a t ion in gen er a l is en for ced on t h e ba sis of t h e en vir on m en t a l per m it s of fa cilit ies.
UK
Th e st a t u t or y r e gim e gover n in g lia bilit y in r espect of soil qu a lit y h a s been est a blish ed in 1995 by t h e E n vir on m en t Act . T h is Act r efer s t o t h e or igin a l pollu t er t o be r espon sible for t h e cost s a n d t h e ca r r yin g ou t of (possible) r em edia l wor k s in ca se of st a t u t or y n u isa n ce. Th e cu r r en t ow n er or occu pier w ill be lia ble if t h e or igin a l pollu t er ca n n ot be fou n d. Apa r t fr om t h e E n vir on m en t Act , a lso elem en t s of t h e Tow n a n d Cou n t r y P la n n in g Act , t h e E n vir on m en t P r ot ect ion Act , Wa t er Resou r ces Act m ay be a pplica ble in t h e ca se of con t a m i -n a t ed la -n d.
