Semantic and syntactic analysis of sports` definitions

SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS

OF SPORTS

’

DEFINITIONS

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Rian Ningrum

Student Number: 131214160

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

i

SEMANTIC AND SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS

OF SPORTS

’

DEFINITIONS

A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

By Rian Ningrum

Student Number: 131214160

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

vi

DEDICATION PAGE

“Allah will not change the condition of people until they change it by themselves”. (Qur’an, Arra‟du. 13.11)

I dedicated this thesis to: My parents: Make and Pake

Amprita Nurvitasari

vii ABSTRACT

Ningrum, Rian. (2017). Semantic and Syntactic Analysis of Sports’ Definitions. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University.

This research investigated the semantic and syntactic field in definitions of 32 sports which were competed in Rio Olympics. As officially noted, the sport became the heading or superordinate of the other sports such as badminton, basketball, and canoeing. This occurence is called hyponymy. Thus, it is expected that the sport comes as the heading of definitions. As a result, this research aimed to find out the way the sports are defined and to examine the constituents and structures of the definitions as dicussed in syntax. Regarding this matter, the researcher formulated two research questions. The research questions are: (1) How are the selected sports in Rio Olympics defined in terms of hyponymy theory related to syntax by O‟Grady, Dobrovolsky, and Katamba (1997) and the theory related to noun phrase by Quirk, Leech, Greenbaum, and Svartvik (1985) to answer the second research question.

In order to gain the data, the researcher collected the definitions from two main sources, namely Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary Online and Oxford

Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Online that will be abbreviated into CLDO and OALDO. To analyze the definitions, the researcher implemented the semantic and syntactic analysis. Thus, the researcher employed qualitative research.

Based on the analysis, the researcher found two main findings of this research. The first finding showed that the selected sports were not totally defined as sport as expected in their hyponymy. It is indicated by the existence of other headwords instead of sport such as activity, game, and event in both dictionaries. Moreover, there were nine headwords that were found in CLDO and there were ten headwords that were found in OALDO. In addition, the second result of this study showed that syntactically, the definitions contained the constituents of the noun phrase, namely determinative, premodification, head, and postmodification. Further, there were various patterns of noun phrase that were located in the dictionaries. In CLDO, there were nine patterns of noun phrase and there were ten patterns of noun phrase that were found in OALDO.

viii ABSTRAK

Ningrum, Rian. (2017). Semantic and Syntactic Analysis of Sports’ Definitions. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Penelitian ini menyelidiki bidang semantik dan sintaksis pada 32 definisi olahraga-olahraga yang diperlombakan dalam Olimpiade Rio. Secara resmi, olahraga menjadi kepala atau superordinat dari olahraga-olahraga lain seperti bulu tangkis, bola basket, dan mendayung. Peristiwa ini disebut hiponim. Maka, diharapkan bahwa kata olahraga menjadi kepala kata dari definisi tersebut. Sebagai hasilnya, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menggali bagaimana olahraga-olahraga didefinisikan dan untuk meneliti unsur-unsur pokok dan struktur dari definisi tersebut seperti yang didiskusikan pada sintaksis. Berkaitan dengan hal ini, peneliti merumuskan dua pertanyaan penelitian. Dua pertanyaan penelitian tersebut adalah: (1) Bagaimana olahraga terpilih di Olimpiade Rio didefinisikan terkait hubungan hiponim dengan kepala kata? (2) Bagaimana definisi olahraga terpilih tersusun secara sintaksis?

Dalam melakukan penelitian, peneliti menggunakan beberapa teori semantik yaitu, kata, makna, dan semantik oleh Isti‟anah (2016), hubungan makna oleh Cruse (2000), hiponim oleh Cruse (2000), dan kepala kata oleh Booij (2005) untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian pertama. Selain itu, peneliti menggunakan teori mengenai sintaksis oleh O‟Grady, Dobrovolsky, dan Katamba (1997) dan teori mengenai frasa kata benda oleh Quirk, Leech, Greenbaum, dan Svartvik (1985) untuk menjawab pertanyaan penelitian kedua.

Untuk mendapatkan data, peneliti mengumpulkan definisi dari dua sumber utama, yaitu Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary Online dan Oxford Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary Online yang disingkat CLDO dan OALDO. Untuk menganalisa definisi tersebut, peneliti menerapkan analisis semantik dan sintaksis. Maka, peneliti menggunakan penelitian kualitatif.

Berdasarkan analisis, peneliti menemukan dua hasil utama penelitian. Hasil penelitian pertama menunjukkan bahwa olahraga-olahraga terpilih tidak sepenuhnya didefinisikan sebagai olahraga seperti yang diharapkan hiponimnya. Hal ini ditandai dengan kemunculan kepala kata lain selain olahraga seperti aktivitas, permainan, dan peristiwa pada kedua kamus. Terlebih, ada sembilan kepala kata yang ditemukan di CLDO dan ada sepuluh kepala kata yang ditemukan di OALDO. Selain itu, hasil penelitian kedua menunjukkan bahwa secara sintaksis, definisi-definisi tersebut berisi unsur-unsur pokok frasa kata benda, yaitu determinative, premodification, kepala kata, dan postmodification. Selanjutnya, terdapat bermacam-macam pola frasa kata benda yang ditemukan dalam kedua kamus. Dalam CLDO, terdapat sembilan pola frasa kata benda dan terdapat sepuluh pola frasa kata benda yang ditemukan di OALDO.

ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

x

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.

To begin with, allow me to express my deepest gratitude to Allah SWT, the Almighty God. Because of His blessing, I could finish my thesis well. He strengthened me in the process of writing this thesis. He always enlightens my way.

I would like to express my big thanks to Bapak Barli Bram, M.Ed., Ph.D. as my advisor who helped me arrange this thesis. He always gave his advice and supported me during this thesis completion. I also would like to say thanks to my DPA (Dosen Pembimbing Akademik), Bapak Markus Budiraharjo, M.Ed., Ed.D., who always guides his students well. In addition, I would like to say my

deepest gratitude to English Language Education Study Program (ELESP), particularly for all of the lecturers and staff in it.

Next, let me express my gratitude to both of my parents. They are Bapak Suroto and Ibu Ramini. May God always bless them due to their effort to send

me to university. Furthermore, I will thank my dearest sister, Amprita Nurvitasari, who always gave her support, motivation, and laugh during this

thesis making. As what she said to me, I would always remember our struggle to get an education.

xi

semester by semester. Next, I would like to say my appreciation to my classmates in class D PBI 2013 who always encourage and broaden my knowledge, especially for those who are still believing in dream.

Finally, I would like to say thanks for those who have helped me in completing this thesis. May God always bless them.

xii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE... i

APPROVAL PAGE ... ii

STATEMENT OF WORK‟S ORIGINALITY ... iv

PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI ... v

DEDICATION PAGE ... vi

ABSTRACT...vii

ABSTRAK ... viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ... ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... x CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ... 11

A. Theoretical Description ... 11

1. Word, Meaning, and Semantics ... 11

2. Sense Relations ... 13

CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 27

xiii

B. Research Setting and Data Sources ... 28

C. Data Gathering Technique ... 30

D. Data Analysis Technique ... 31

CHAPTER IV RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...36

A. How the Selected Sports are Defined in Terms of Hyponymy Relation with Headword ... 36

B. How the Selected Sports‟ Definitions are Constructed Syntactically ... 48

1. The Constituents of the Definitions ... 49

2. The Patterns of the Definitions ... 58

CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ... 74

A. Conclusions ... 74

B. Implications ... 76

C. Recommendations ... 77

REFERENCES . ... 79

xiv LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table 2.1 The Syntactic Categories Based on O‟Grady, et al. (1997) ... 19

Table 2.2 The Syntactic Structure of A Noun Phrase ... 22

Table 3.1 The Definitions of Sports ... 31

Table 3.2 The Example of Headword Coding as Illustrated in Appendix A... . 32

Table 3.3 Kinds of Headwords in the Definitions ... 32

Table 3.4 The Pattern in Appendix B ... 33

Table 3.5 The Example of Report for Each Constituent ... ... 34

Table 3.6 The Patterns of the Definitions as Seen in Table 4.9 ... 35

Table 4.1 The Definitions of Sports in Rio Olympics in CLDO and OALDO ... 40

Table 4.2 Kinds of Headwords in the Definitions... 43

Table 4.3 The Use of Determiners in CLDO ... 50

Table 4.4 The Use of Determiners in OALDO ... 51

Table 4.5 The Example of the Premodifiers Use in CLDO and OALDO ... 52

Table 4.6 The Examples of Major Postmodifiers ... 54

Table 4.7 The Kinds of Postmodification in CLDO ... 55

Table 4.8 The Kinds of Postmodification in OALDO... ... 57

Table 4.9 The Example of Construction Art + N + PP ... ... 59

Table 4.10 The Example of Multiple Heads ... 60

Table 4.11 The Pattern Art + N + RC in CLDO ... 60

Table 4.12 The Pattern of Art + N + NFC in CLDO ... 61

Table 4.13 The Pattern of Art + N + N + NFC in CLDO ... 62

Table 4.14 The Pattern of A + N + NFC in CLDO ... 62

Table 4.15 The Pattern of Art + A + N + RC in CLDO... 63

Table 4.16 The Pattern of Art + N + AdvP in CLDO ... 64

Table 4.17 The Pattern of Art + N + A + N + RC in CLDO ... 64

Table 4.18 The Pattern of Adjective Phrase in CLDO ... 65

Table 4.19 The Pattern of Art + N + PP in OALDO... ... 66

Table 4.20 The Occurence of Multiple Heads in OALDO ...67

Table 4.21 The Pattern of N + PP in OALDO ... 67

xv

Table 4.23 The Pattern of Art + N + N + NFC in OALDO ... 68

Table 4.24 The Pattern of Art + N + RC in OALDO ... 69

Table 4.25 The Pattern of Art + A + N + PP in OALDO ... 69

Table 4.26 The Pattern of Art + N + N + RC in OALDO ... 70

Table 4.27 The Pattern of A + N + RC in OALDO ... 71

Table 4.28 The Pattern of Art + A + N + RC in OALDO ... 71

Table 4.29 The Adjective Phrase in OALDO ... 72

Table 4.30 The Equivalence of Adjective Phrase with Noun Phrase ... 72

xvi LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

Figure 2.1 The Example of Paradigmatic Relation ... 13

Figure 2.2 The Example of Hyponymy ... 16

Figure 2.3 The General Rule of A Phrase ... 19

Figure 2.4 The Examples of Noun Phrase (NP)... ... 20

Figure 2.5 The Examples of Premodification ... ... 23

Figure 2.6 The Illustration of Hyponymy in Sports ...25

Figure 4.1 Kinds of Sports in Rio Olympics ... 38

Figure 4.2 Kinds of Headwords in CLDO ... 44

Figure 4.3 Kinds of Headwords in OALDO ... 46

xvii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the background information related to this research. It will be divided into four main parts, namely research background, research questions, research significance, and definition of terms.

Research Background A.

A word reflects the existence of a thing in the world. As Poole (1999) notes that a word is used to specify something in the world. Thus, a word conveys meaning. Further, the study of meaning is discussed in semantics. Semantics is one of the branches in linguistics which discusses meaning. In order to have the semantic adequacy, there are three requirements that should be noted. Kempson (1977) argues that the requirements are describing the nature of words and sentence meanings, predicting the ambiguities in words and sentences, and identifying and explaining the systematic relation between words and sentences of language such as hyponymy, synonymy, and entailment. As a result, this research is trying to explore the semantic field, particularly in the third criteria, which is the relation between meaning.

animal, and living being. This kind of sense relations leads people to a classification. As a result, one of the sense relations that leads to the classification in language is hyponymy.

Hyponymy is a crucial point in vocabulary usage of language (Cruse, 2000). Hyponymy is the relation between meaning in which a hierarchical structure is made to explain superordinate and subordinate connection in a particular field. Hyponymy is the relation between fruit as the superordinate and orange as the subordinate or vehicle as the hyperonym and car as the hyponym. Furthermore, hyponymy reflects the notion of membership such as animal with dog, cat, and lion. It is supported by Poole (1999) who states that in order to deal with the world around us, there is a need to make a categorization.

Hyponymy includes a phenomenon of entailment or inclusion of meaning. Meaning inclusion means the meaning of a particular thing is being included within the other meanings. Nida (1975) also agrees that the meaning of words might be included within the meaning of other words. For instance, an apple is a kind of fruit, so it is expected that fruit is included in the meaning of an apple. Therefore, it can be understood that the hyponymy describes a general term that comes as the heading and the others as the sub-divisions.

finding the meaning in the dictionary. The dictionary provides a definition by suggesting the words or the phrases to be understood through the „same‟ meanings, though what is same-ness is a problem that is difficult to be solved. In addition, the researcher collected the data from Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary Online which can be accessed on http://dictionary.cambridge.org/search/learner-english/direct/ and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Online which can be accessed on http://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com due to their accessibility, suitability with the learners‟ context, and freedom of charge. People can get the accessibility of the dictionaries since people can access the dictionaries as long as they have an internet connection. Further, by accessing the online version, people do not have to open the installed dictionary as in laptop or personal computer. As a result, people can access the dictionary easily through mobile phone. Next, both of the dictionaries are dictionaries that are intended for English learners as stated on their name which are Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Thus, it is considered that the dictionaries are suitable for the learners. Last, the dictionaries are free of charge as long as people have the internet connection.

selected sports were archery, athletics, badminton, basketball, beach volleyball, boxing, canoeing, cycling, diving, equestrian, fencing, football, golf, gymnastic, handball, hockey, judo, pentathlon, rowing, rugby, sailing, shooting, swimming, table tennis, Tae Kwon Do, tennis, trampoline, triathlon, volleyball, waterpolo, weightlifting, and wrestling.

The selected sports represent the notion of membership in the hyponymy since the sports appear as the heading or the hyperonym, while the badminton, judo, boxing, and the other selected sports are the hyponyms. Further, as the hyponymy reflects the meaning inclusion, therefore it is expected that the word sport comes as the heading of the definitions. The heading for a phrase is also known as headword. In line with this, Huang, Thint, and Qin (2008) in their paper entitled Question Classification using Head Words and Their Hypernym also agree with this statement by saying that one of the features to know the classification is by identifying the headword of a phrase. Moreover, Poole (1999) states that the headword is the most principal element in a phrase. For instance, in the definition by OALDO, fencing is the sport of fighting with long thin swords, thus the headword of fencing is sport.

that, Rio Olympics was also chosen as the main object since that event is as global as sport itself. Most of the nations around the world participated in the event. It was also the latest world-level competition, so it is suggested that the sports in it are always adjusted to the development of sports. The third consideration is that in the Indonesian educational system, sports have been introduced to students since they are on the elementary to higher educational level. Thus, investigating how the sports are defined becomes the first purpose of the study.

Beside knowing the relation between meaning which is discussed in semantics, it will be also meaningful to know structures of the definitions. In line with this, Filip (2008) also argues that knowing the meaning cannot be separated from the structure that builds it. In addition, Katamba (1993) says that every word has its own construction, including the definitions. The branch of linguistics that deals with this issue is syntax. Further, syntax explores how the words are combined together to create some larger elements of language such as phrases and sentences. As a result, this research also aims to find out how the definitions of sports are constructed due to the initial result that the definitions belong to noun phrases. Further, determining the structure of the noun phrase is considered as a way to implement the knowledge for English Language Education Study Program students since it will be discussed further in a particular course called Morpho-syntax. Therefore, instead of studying about meaning, this research is also helpful by equipping the students about the pattern of a phrase.

Bram and Aulia (2015), who focused on consistency of hyponymy and headword in vegetable definitions. It was found that there was an inconsistency in the vegetable definitions. Some vegetable definitions were not totally defined as vegetable based on Meriam Webster Dictionary and Cambridge Advanced

Learner’s Dictionary. Moreover, another study was investigated by Rahmawati (2014), who reported that fruit names were defined systematically according to its hyponymy by mentioning the word fruit as the headword. Further, the definitions were constructed of similar patterns which consisted of premodifier, noun headword, and postmodifier. However, this research is considered as different since this research is going to explore the sports‟ definitions as the main subject in the semantic field and the syntactic field at once. Thus, this research is considered as new.

Research Questions B.

This research aims to answer these two formulated research questions. The questions are:

1. How are the selected sports in Rio Olympics defined in terms of hyponymy relation with headword?

2. How are the selected sports‟ definitions syntactically constructed?

Research Significance C.

This research will be beneficial to some parties. They are English Language Education Study Program students, teachers, and future researchers. 1. English Language Education Study Program Students

This study will be worthy for widening the understanding of English Language Education Study Program students in two major topics. To begin with, it will increase the students‟ awareness in understanding the main concept of a particular field. For instance, the hyponymy study will lead the students to be more familiar with general term and specific term as in mind mapping. The second one, this study is beneficial to the development of students in constructing a sentence. Knowing the way a definition is constructed will lead the students to master the sentence pattern which is also discussed in Morpho-syntax and Grammar.

2. Teachers

to a particular material. For instance, from the dictionary, the students can be introduced to parts of speech and how a word is pronounced. In other words, it will increase the literacy of the students in finding the meaning in the dictionary. 3. Future Researchers

Finally, this research will give future researchers a new inspiration that a topic can be developed from the nearest subject to humans‟ lives such as from the dictionary. Therefore, there are still a lot of hidden topics there to be discussed that are close to daily life such as the meaning that exists in the daily life.

Definition of Terms D.

In order to have a better understanding about this thesis, there are seven important terms in this research. They are semantics, hyponymy, headword, sport, syntax, noun phrase, and definition.

1. Semantics

Semantics is one of the fields in linguistics which deals with meaning. Further, Aitchison (2003) mentions that semantics comes from the Greek of noun

‘sema’ which means ‘sign, signal’ and verb ‘semaino’ which means ‘signal,

mean’. Thus, semantics is the study of meaning. In this case, semantics is applied to explain the phenomenon of sense relations.

2. Hyponymy

subordinates or hyponyms. Hyponymy also involves a meaning inclusion or an entailment in which a meaning is included within another meaning.

3. Headword

Headword is an element of a phrase that carries the most important information in a phrase. Moreover, Poole (1999) argues that headword is the most principal element in a phrase. For instance, in the phrase the book, book is the headword, since it carries the most essential meaning. Identifying the headword is one of the ways to know the relation between meaning, including the hyponymy. In this case, headword is used to identify the relation between the hyponymy as proposed by Huang, et al. (2008).

4. Sport

This thesis discusses the definitions of sports, thus the researcher would like to introduce the sport first. Clearing house, a sport commission in Australia, (n.d.) states that according to old definition in around 1300, sport is any activity of humans to seek amusement or entertainment. Meanwhile, nowadays sport can be defined as a game that involves physical exercise. It appeared in the mid-1500‟s. As a conclusion, sport is the human activity that involves physical exercise.

5. Syntax

context, the syntactic theory is used to explain the elements and the patterns of the definitions which were dominated by noun phrases.

6. Noun Phrase

Both word and phrase are considered to have their own constructions. As stated by Katamba (1993), every word has its own construction, including the phrase. Noun Phrase is a phrase whose head is noun. For instance, in hard worker; the head is worker which belongs to a noun. Thus, it is a noun phrase. Moreover, the noun phrase consists of four main constituents, namely determinative, premodification, head, and postmodification. The members of each contituent are called determiner, premodifier, head, and postmodifier. For instance, in the phrase a beautiful book which is signed, the a is the determinant, beautiful is premodifier, book is the head, while which is signed is postmodifier. The noun phrase structure is used to analyze the patterns of the definitions.

7. Definition

11

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter will present the related theories of the research, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. The theoretical description deals with the theories that are relevant to this research. Meanwhile, the theoretical framework provides the summary of the theories that helps the researcher to synthesize the theories.

A. Theoretical Description

This section demonstrates some theories that are related to this research. The theories aim to help the researcher to answer the research questions. There are six theories which will be reviewed. They are word, meaning, and semantics, sense relations, hyponymy, headword, syntax, and noun phrase.

1. Word, Meaning, and Semantics

Mead as cited in Mazzota and Myers (2008) states that “all objects hold a representative or symbolic value” (p. 20). Its value is needed to be represented through meaning. Normally, the meaning can be represented through a word. A word exists to represent the meaning of particular thing. The meaning denotes the existence for a thing in the world. For instance, the word daughter denotes a younger female relative. As a result, the words become the source of meaning to understand a language. In line with this, Isti‟anah (2016) argues that “words are

Since words become the source to describe meanings, the term for a word as source of meaning is called lexeme or lexical item. In line with this, Poole (1999) notes that the lexeme refers to “an item of vocabulary with a single

referent whether it consists of one word or more than one word” (p. 10). Moreover, the lexical item is deeply studied in semantics. Semantics is one of the branches in linguistics which explores meaning.

Being more specific, semantics is divided into two main areas, which are lexical semantics and phrasal semantics as explained by Fromkin (2000). Isti‟anah

(2016) argues that lexical semantics covers the meaning of word itself and its relationship with the other words. Meanwhile, phrasal semantics describes the meaning of syntactic element in a larger context than words such as phrases. In this case, as this research deals with the word meanings of sports, thus this research highlights lexical semantics theory.

One of the ways to express the lexical meaning is through finding the definition in the dictionary. The dictionary provides the meaning for particular thing in a form of written sentence. In other words, a dictionary denotes the meaning of a thing. As stated by Palmer (1981) that the dictionary characterizes meaning. The dictionary provides the definition by suggesting the words or the phrases to be understood through the „same‟ meaning‟.

word meaning and its relation, meanwhile phrasal semantics concerns about a larger meaning than the word such as phrasal meaning.

2. Sense Relations

Lexical semantics deals with the word meaning and its relation among other meanings. Hence, it can be inferred that the word has a relationship with the other words. This phenomenon in which a meaning has a relationship with the other meanings is called sense relations. The sense relations as proposed by Cruse (2000) are divided into three main areas, namely paradigmatic relation, syntagmatic relation, and derivational relation.

a. Paradigmatic relation

Paradigmatic relation discusses lexical semantics or meaning choices which are suitable at a particular structure of a sentence. Further, the paradigmatic relation involves the word that has the same category. It means that the meaning of a word should be suitable for the empty slot. For example, the category of a particular sentence is food, thus it should be filled with meatball, bread, and cookies. The example of a paradigmatic relation can be seen in Figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1 The Example of Paradigmatic Relation

b. Syntagmatic relation

Syntagmatic relation is the relation between meaning to express a coherence constraint. It explains the items that occur in a same sentence. For

I have a glass of ... beer

orange juice milk

instance, the syntagmatic relation between a verb and a prepositional phrase can be seen in The girl sat across the field and The smell ran accross the field. The first example is normal, meanwhile the second example is odd.

c. Derivational relation

The derivational relation happens when word families occur in paradigmatic choices. The particular word choices should be generated from the same root. For instance, the word cook can be enlarged into cooker, cooking, and cookery.

3. Hyponymy

Poole (1999) states that in order to deal with the external world, people should put label on a thing. This matter leads people to divide the thing into a particular classification or categorization. In line with this, Aitchison (2003) agrees that a further way to examine the lexical structure is by noting the way in which a language classifies items. The classification will be assisted through a hierarchical structure. In addition, Aitchison (2003) argues that by knowing the hierarchical structure, it helps people to understand the multiple links between different words. Then, it also allows people‟s logical notations to be explicit in their description. As a result, one of the hierarchical structure examples is hyponymy.

in the field of identity and inclusion. Cruse (2000) argues that hyponymy is one of the most important structuring relations in which a particular word becomes the superordinate or hyperonym, meanwhile the other words come as the subordinates or hyponyms.

Further, Cruse (2000) states that hyponymy exposes the meaning inclusion. In line with this, Chaffin and Glass (1990) also say that hyponymy is a class inclusion. As Nida (1975) argues that there are four types of relations in the meaning of language. They are inclusion, overlapping, complementation, and contiguity. As hyponymy represents the notion of meaning inclusion, meaning inclusion is understood as the meaning of particular thing might be included within other meanings. Equally, Nida (1975) states that “in many instances, the meaning of one word may be said to be included within the meaning of another” (p. 15). For instance, all poodles are dogs and all dogs are animals. Thus, the meaning of poodle can be said to be included in the meaning of dog and the meaning of dog is included in the meaning of animal.

(2010) also exempiflies a diagram of flower hyponymy as demonstrated in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 The Example of Hyponymy

As officially registered in https://www.olympic.org/rio-2016, Rio Olympics also noted that the sport came as the superordinate of the other sports such as badminton, fencing, and basketball. They are the subordinates. In other words, the sports represent the notion of hyponymy. Thus, it is expected that the word sport becomes the heading of the definitions as illustrated in Figure 2.2.

4. Headword

As this research explores how the definitions of sports are defined in relation with hyponymy, one of the features that explains the hyponymy relation is by identifiying headword as proposed by Huang, et al. (2008). Based on Booij (2005), the headword is a crucial element in a particular syntax. Miller (2002) states that a phrase at least consists of head and modification. On the contrary, Booij (2005) mentions that the minimal element for a phrase is just a head. Nevertheless, the arguments reveal that the headword is a must to be included in a phrase.

Flower

Booij (2005) defines the headword as the syntactic category which determines the kind of the whole phrase. For instance, the noun phrase is a phrase whose head is noun. The phrase the book is a noun phrase. The head of the phrase is book. In line with this, Ydin and Seker (2013) state that “the head is the element in which the complement is reffered or belongs” (p. 234). Further, Bauer (2007) also notes that the headword is the most important word since in the phrase red onion, the onion acts as the head and it determines the kind of the whole phrase, namely noun phrase.

5. Syntax

O‟Grady, Dobrovolsky, and Katamba (1997) mention a language involves the system of rules and categories in forming a sentence. Further, it can be implied that the sentence is created by obeying the particular rules or patterns. Hence, the way of language is constructed might be considered as an interesting field to be explored. As a result, the study of rules or patterns in a sentence is discussed further in syntax.

Syntax is one of the branches in linguistics which studies how the words are put together to generate a sentence. In line with this, Culicover (1982) also agrees that syntax involves the elements of sentence and a set of rules which words are grouped together. As this research carried out syntactic analysis, thus the meaning of syntactic analysis is required. As argued by Patrut (2012), a syntactic analysis is also known for “the parsing of a string of words that might be

expected that a syntactic study will break down the formation of particular sentences or phrases.

From the explanation about syntax, it can be inferred that there are two main elements in building a sentence. They are the categories of syntax and the patterns or rules of syntax. As a result, this part will be divided into two main categories, namely the syntactic categories and the general rule based on O‟Grady, et al. (1997).

a. Categories

Table 2.1 The Syntactic Categories Based on O’Grady, et al. (1997)

LEXICAL

Categories Symbols Examples

Noun (N) Bird, glass, teacher

Verb (V) Run, eat, walk

Adjective (A) Tall, short, handsome Preposition (P) At, in, on

Adverb (Adv) Quickly, slowly, yesterday

NON- LEXICAL

Determiner (Det) A, an, the Degree word (Deg) Very, so, quite Qualifier (Qual) Always, never,

almost

Auxiliary (Aux) Will, could, may Conjunction (Conj) And, or, but

b. General Rule of A Phrase

O‟Grady, et al. (1997) state that there will be also a set of rules or patterns to build a sentence as well as a phrase beside the categories. The initial result of this research showed that almost all of the definitions were phrases. Culicover (1982) defines a phrase as “any sequence of words in the language that itself is a member of some categories” (p. 10). Further, the phrase commonly has a same generic structure. The phrase consists of three elements, namely specifier, head, and complement as illustrated in Figure 2.3.

XPs

Specifier Heads Complement

The specifier covers the non-lexical categories such as determiner, qualifier, and degree of word. The specifier is used to specify the phrase or the sentence before the head. For instance, the phrase is the story of my life. In this case, the is a determiner. It acts as the specifier of the head story. Besides, the phrase is also completed with my life as a complement.

6. Noun Phrase

Radford (1997) argues that “noun phrase is a phrase whose head is noun” (p. 266). For instance, in the expression a thin book, the head is book which is a noun, thus the expression belongs to a noun phrase. Noun Phrase is usually symbolized with NP which stands for Noun Phrase.

However, as well as sentence, the constructions of the noun phrase can be complex. Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech, and Svartvik (1985) also agree that it is not only the sentence which has the complex construction. The noun phrase might have the complex structure. As a result, the noun phrase does not only consist of a simple construction such as in a thin book with a as the determiner, thin as the premodifier, and book as the head. In order to have a better understanding, the researcher will provide some examples which show that the noun phrase might be complex in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4 The Examples of Noun Phrase (NP)

(i) The headmaster

(ii) The wise headmaster

(iii) The wise headmaster of the school

From Figure 2.4, it is clearly noted that the noun phrase can be developed into a complex phrase. Moreover, the head headmaster can be predetermined by the as determiner and wise as the adjective. Besides, the head headmaster can be followed by prepositional phrase as well as relative clause. As a conclusion, the noun phrase can be enlarged into a more complex phrase.

As students of English Language Education Study Program, this matter is also being studied in Morpho-syntax class. The students need to know the construction of the phrases. This is supported by the objective of Morpho-syntax class as written on Panduan Akademik Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris (2010) that “students should be able to identify syntactic patterns and explain syntactic constructions” (p. 51). As a result, in order to break down the structure, the researcher also demonstrates the constituents of the noun phrase based on Quirk, et al. (1985).

a. Noun Phrase Constituents

Table 2.2 The Syntactic Structure of A Noun Phrase NP (DET) (ADJ) N (PP)

QUAN ART

NP‟s

As stated previously by Quirk, et al. (1985), the noun phrases might be as complex as sentences. As a result, Quirk, et al. (1985) demonstrate the more specific constituents for the noun phrases. Further, the constituents of the noun phrase are divided into four main elements. They are the determinative, head, premodification, and postmodification.

1) Determinative

Determinative is the constituent which specifies a particular noun phrase. The members of the determinative are called determiners. The determiners occur before the head of the noun phrase. However, they are placed before premodifiers. There are three types of determiners, namely predeterminers, central determiners, and postdeterminers.

the premodifiers such as an adjective. An instance of postdeterminers is numeral such as many, few, and several.

2) Head

Head is one of the constituents in a particular phrase which determines the categories of the whole phrase. Further, Radford (1997) argues that the head is the key word of the phrases. For instance, in the phrase students of linguistics, the phrase students acts as the head, meanwhile the phrase of linguistic acts as a modifier. From the example, the phrase students plays an important role as the noun which determines the kind of the phrase, namely noun phrase. In line with this, Poole (1999) argues that the head is “the principal element of a phrase” (p. 190).

3) Premodification

Premodification stands for the item that precedes the head of the noun phrase, except the determinative. The members of premodification are called premodifiers. The premodifiers consist of adjective and noun.

Figure 2.5 The Examples of Premodification

4) Postmodification

Postmodification is the item that comes after the head of the noun phrase. The members of the postmodification are called postmodifiers. The postmodifiers consist of four main parts. They are prepositional phrase, nonfinite clause, relative

clause, and complementation. To simplify the discussion, the postmodifiers will be abbreviated into PP for prepositional phrase, NFC for nonfinite clause, RC for relative clause, and Comp for Complementation. The mentioned postmodifiers belong to major postmodifiers as argued by Quirk, et al. (1985) since they are frequently used in a phrase. As a result, it can be inferred that there is a possibility for other kinds of postmodifiers such as an adverbial phrase.

B. Theoretical Framework

This research aims to answer two research problems which are how the selected sports in Rio Olympics are defined in terms of hyponymy relation with headword and how the sports‟ definitions are constructed syntactically. In order to answer the research problems, the researcher employs some theories that deal with semantics and syntax. The first research problem is answered with some theories of semantics, namely word, meaning and semantics, sense relations, hyponymy, and headword. In addition, the second research problem is answered by employing the theories of syntax and noun phrase.

exposes the meaning inclusion in which the meaning of a particular thing includes within the other meanings.

Sports in Rio Olympics represent the notion of hyponymy since sport comes as the heading of other sports such as badminton, basketball, and wrestling as illustrated in Figure 2.6. As a result, this research explored whether the term sport comes as the heading of the other sports by identifying the headword of the phrase in the definitions. Regarding this question, the researcher applies some theories by Cruse (2000), Isti‟anah (2016), Palmer (1981), and Poole (1999) to deal with semantics. In addition, the researcher employs the theory of Booij (2005) to discuss the headword.

Figure 2.6 The Illustration of Hyponymy in Sports

Beside dealing with meaning, this research also explores the syntactic structure of the definitions. The initial result showed that almost all of the definitions in CLDO and OALDO were noun phrase. As a result, the researcher employs two theories, namely syntax by O‟Grady et al. (1997) and Culicover (1982) and noun phrase by Quirk, et al. (1985).

Sport

Syntax deals with two main areas. They are elements and patterns of a particular phrase. Thus, the theories of syntax by O‟Grady, et. al (1997) and Culicover (1982) are used to explain the element and the general rule for a phrase. Being more specific, the initial result of this study shows that most all of the definitions are noun phrases. As a consequence, the theory of noun phrase by Quirk, et al. (1985) is used to analyze the constituents and the patterns that are generated from the constituents.

27 CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents the way this research was conducted namely research method, research setting and data sources, data gathering technique, and data analysis technique.

A. Research Method

The research focuses on the analysis of sports‟ definitions semantically and syntactically. The methodology was employed to answer two research problems: (1) How are the selected sports in Rio Olympics defined in terms of hyponymy relation with headword? (2) How are the selected sports‟ definitions syntactically constructed?

To answer the research questions, the researcher employed qualitative research. Fraenkel, Wallen, and Hyun (2012) state that the qualitative research is the research which deals with the quality of relationships, activities, situations, and materials. Moreover, the qualitative research aims to understand the organizational pattern. Since this research was dealt with meaning and pattern of a phrase, the qualitative research assisted the researcher to have a deep investigation about them.

Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary Online will be abbreviated into CLDO, meanwhile Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Online will be abbreviated into OALDO.

This research analyzed sense relations between meaning and phrase structure of the definitions particularly as noun phrases. Both of the analyses covered the linguistic fields, namely semantics and syntax. As stated by Aitchison (2003), semantics is one of the branches in linguistics that concerns about meaning, meanwhile syntax is a branch of linguistics that deals with how the words are combined. In conclusion, the nature of this research is semantic and syntactic analysis since this research deals with meaning and phrase construction.

B. Research Setting and Data Sources

were http://dictionary.cambridge.org/searchds/learner-english and https://www.oxforddictionaries.com/learners/OALD.

In addition, the researcher collected the definitions starting from September 2016 until March 2017 since the researcher should check the definitions periodically to see whether there was a change in the definitions or not. Further, as this research carried out qualitative research which employed semantic and syntactic analysis, thus the only human instrument was the researcher itself.

The subject of this research was the selected sports which were competed in Rio Olympics. Officially, there were noted 42 sports in Rio Olympics. However, there were 32 sports to be discussed in this chapter. They were archery, athletics, badminton, basketball, beach volleyball, boxing, canoeing, cycling, diving, equestrian, fencing, football, golf, gymnastic, handball, hockey, judo, modern pentathlon, rowing, rugby, sailing, shooting, swimming, table tennis, Tae Kwon Do, tennis, trampoline, triathlon, volley ball, water polo, weightlifting, and wrestling. The researcher preferred to select 32 sports only as the main data since some of the sports were having the similar activity, but they differred in the manner such as wrestling. In wrestling, there were two kinds of wrestling, namely wrestling freestyle and wrestling greco-Roman. Thus, the researcher classified that one into wrestling.

equestrian jumping into equestrian, gymnastic artistic and gymnastic rhytmic into gymnastic, and finally swimming and synchronized swimming into swimming.

C. Data Gathering Technique

The researcher examined the definitions that were collected from the CLDO and OALDO as the main sources. As Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, and Razavieh (2010) argue that the instruments to be studied in research are various such as textbooks, newspapers, web pages, speeches, television programs, advertisements, musical compositions, and any other types of documents. Since this research dealt with definitions, the researcher used the dictionaries as the main sources.

Table 3.1 The Definitions of Sports based on CLDO and OALDO

No. Kinds of sports

Definitions

CLDO OALDO

1. Archery 2. Diving 3.

... 32.

D. Data Analysis Technique

After the data were collected, some steps were done by the researcher to analyze the data. The analysis process was done in order to answer the research problems as stated in chapter 1. 2. Being clear, the first research problem deals with the way the selected sports are defined in terms of hyponymy relation and headword. Besides, the second question deals with the way the definitions are constructed syntactically.

simplify the headword analysis, the researcher made a headword coding in a form of table to classify the headword as illustrated in Appendix A.

Table 3.2 The Example of Headword Coding as Illustrated in Appendix A Number Kinds of

Sports

Definitions Headword

1. archery A sport in which you shoot arrows sport 2. athletics The sports that include running, jumping,

and throwing

sport

3. badminton A sport for two or four people in which you hit a shuttlecock (=

alight object with feathers) over a net

sport

... ... ...

... 32. wrestling A sport in which two people fight and try

to push each other to the ground

sport

Next, the researcher made a table and diagram to summarize the data specifically on how percentage of each headword was used in the definitions in CLDO and OALDO. The example of the headword use table can be seen in Table 3.3. Meanwhile, the discussion related to percentage of the headwords use is illustrated with a diagram as seen in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3

Table 3.3 Kinds of Headwords in the Definitions

Number

Headwords

CLDO OALDO

1. Sport Game

2. ... ...

3. ... ...

into two mains sections, namely constituents and patterns of the definitions. The researcher applied the theory of Quirk, et al. (1985) about the noun phrase. As explained by Quirk, et al. (1985), there are four constituents of the noun phrase. They are determinative, head, premodification, and postmodification. Each constituent has its own members. Being more specific, the determinative consists of predeterminers, central determiners, and postdeterminers. Then, the premodification consists of adjective and noun. Meanwhile, the postmodification consists of prepositional phrase, nonfinite clause, relative clause, and complementation.

To explore the constituents, the researcher classified each constituent into a table which will give the information about the constituents as seen in Appendix B. Further, the table also demonstrated the finding into a more specific constituent. In other words, the table was designed to contain all of constituents at once. Thus, the researcher could put thick symbol () and identify the kinds of constituents by mentioning the used constituent in the definitions. The researcher also labelled some constituents as abbreviations to save the space. For instance, the prepositional phrase was labelled as PP and nonfinite clause was labelled as NFC. In order to give clear explanation, the researcher would demonstrate an example of analysis table in Table 3.4 as written in Appendix B.

arrows with a bow

with a bow 2. Athletics Sports such

as running and

jumping that people compete in

- - -  Sport

s

 PP such as running and jumping that people compete in

After being analyzed, the researcher conducted an analysis of the constituents. The analysis was divided based on each constituent. For instance, the determiners that appeared in the definitions were dominated by the central determiner in a form of articles such as a, an, and the. Then, each constituent was counted to report the frequency of the constituents. Finally, the researcher reported the example of the results for each constituent as seen in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 The Example of Report for Each Constituent

Number Kinds of sports Definitions Determiner

1. Archery A sport in which you shoot arrows A

Table 3.6 The Patterns of the Definitions as Seen in Table 4.9 Sport Definition Pattern

shooting The sport of firing bullets from guns, sometimes to kill animals.

Art N PP

The sport of firing bullets from guns, sometimes to kill animals

Finally, the researcher validated all the findings after finishing the analysis. This step was done in order to verify the data and avoid misinterpretation in classifying the chosen data. As argued by Fraenkel, et al. (2012), there were some procedures in validating step of qualitative research. In this research, the researcher validated the data by applying member checking and internal audit process as proposed by Frankel, et al. (2012).

36 CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter presents the findings and the discussion regarding the research problems of this research. The first research problem is how the selected sports in Rio Olympics are defined in terms of hyponymy relation with headword. Thus, the data was collected by searching the definitions of 32 sports in CLDO and OALDO. Furthermore, there is also another research problem which deals with syntactic structure of the definitions. As a result, the second problem of this research is how the selected sports‟ definitions are syntactically constructed.

The data of this research will be presented according to the sequence of the research problems. Thus, the findings will be divided into two main parts which are Part A and Part B. Part A concerns about the first research problem which is how the selected sports in Rio Olympics are defined in terms of hyponymy relation with headword. Meanwhile, Part B discusses the second research problem which is the way those sports‟ definitions are constructed syntactically. Therefore, the discussion will be put together within the research results or findings.

A. How the Selected Sports are Defined in Terms of Hyponymy Relation

with Headword

canoeing, cycling, diving, equestrian, fencing, football, golf, gymnastic, handball, hockey, judo, pentathlon, rowing, rugby, sailing, shooting, swimming, table tennis, Tae Kwon Do, tennis, trampoline, triathlon, volleyball, waterpolo, weightlifting, and wrestling. Then, those sports were defined by referring to Cambridge Learner’s Dictionary Online and Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary Online.

From the selected sports, the sports represent the notion of hyponymy. Hyponymy means the relationship between meaning with the other meanings in which a particular word comes as superordinate or hyperonym and the others as subordinates or hyponyms. In addition, hyponymy involves the notion of meaning inclusion in which the meaning of a particular word is included in the meaning of other words. In this state, Nida (1975) mentions all poodles are dog, thus the meaning of poodle is included in the meaning of dog, and the meaning of dog is included in the meaning of animal.

Figure 4.1 Kinds of Sports in Rio Olympics as taken from

www.olympic.org/rio-2016

Thus, one of the features to know whether the word “sport” was included in the definitions is by identifying the headword of the definitions. In line with this, Huang, et al. (2008) argue that one of the features to investigate the classification as hyponymy is by the use of headword. Headword is commonly viewed as the core of a sentence. Further, Radford (1997) argues that “headword is the key word in the phrase whose nature determines the properties of overall phrase” (p. 18). For instance, in phrase students of linguistics, the nature of the

what kinds of the students are. As a conclusion, such classification as hyponymy would be carried out through headword in this research.

A previous study has been conducted by Bram and Aulia (2015) about headword in their paper entitled Headwords and Hyponymy Consistencies in Vegetable Definitions. Based on their study, it turned out that the definitions of vegetables such as artichoke, asparagus, and carrot were not consistent since the definitions did not use the headword vegetable as the hyperonym of other vegetables. It was indicated by the use of other headwords instead of vegetable in the definitions. As a result, this research presented a similar thing at sports‟ definitions, meaning wheter they were defined as sport or not. To simplify the discussion, Table 4.1 provides the definitions of the selected sports based on CLDO and OALDO.

Table 4.1 The Definitions of Sports in Rio Olympics in CLDO and OALDO

Number Kinds of sport Definitions

CLDO OALDO

1. archery A sport in which you shoot arrows. The art or sport of shooting arrows with a bow. 2. athletics The sports that include running, jumping, and throwing. Sports such as running and jumping that people

compete in. 3. badminton A sport for two or four people in which you hit a

shuttlechock (=alight object with feathers) over a net.

A game like tennis played by two or four people, usually indoors. Players hit a small light kind of ball, originally with feathers around it (= a shuttlecock) across a high net using a racket.

4. basketball A game in which two teams try to win points by throwing a ball through high net.

A game played by two teams of five players, using a large ball which players try to throw into a high net hanging from a ring a basketball game/coach/team. 5. beach

volleyball

A form of volleyball played on sand by two teams of two players.

A form of volleyball played on sand by teams of two players

6. boxing A sport in which two people hit each other while wearing big, leather gloves (=pieces of clothing for your hands).

A sport in which two people fight each other with 9. diving The activity or sport of swimming under water, usually

using special breathing equipment.

The sport or activity of diving into water with your head and arms first a diving competition.

10. equestrian Relating to riding horses. Connected with riding horses, especially as sport equestrian events at the Olympic Games.

11. fencing The sport of fighting with thin swords (= weapons like lo ng knives).

The sport of fighting with long thin swords.

and try to score goals. round ball which players kick up and down the playing field. Teams try to kick the ball into the other

team‟s goal. 13. golf A game on grass where players try to hit a small ball into

a series of holes using a long, thin stick.

A game played over a large area of ground using specially shaped sticks to hit a small hard ball (a golf ball) into a series of 9 or 18 holes, using as few strokes as possible.

14. gymnastic Physical exercises and activities performed inside, often using equipment such as bars and ropes, intended to

increase the body‟s strenght and the ability to move and

bend easily.

Connected with gymnastics (= physical exercises that develop and show the body's strength and ability to move and bend easily, often done as a sport in competitions) gymnastic exercise.

15. handball A game in which players hit a small, hard rubber ball against a wall with their hands.

A game in which players hit a small ball against a wall with their hand.

16. hockey - - A game played on a field by two teams of 11 players, with curved sticks and a small hard ball. Teams try to

hit the ball into the other team‟s goal. 17. judo A sport from Japan in which two people try to throw each

other to the ground.

A sport in which two people fight and try to throw each other to the ground.

18. pentathlon A sports event in which athletes compete in five different sports.

A sporting event in which people compete in five different sports (running, riding, swimming, shooting and fencing).

19. rowing - The sport or activity of travelling in a boat using oars to go rowing.

20. rugby A sport played by two teams with an oval ball and H-shaped goals.

A game played by two teams of 13 or 15 players, using an oval ball which may be kicked or carried.

Teams try to put the ball over the other team‟s line.

21. sailing A sport using boats with sails. The sport or activity of travelling in a boat with sails to go sailing a sailing club.

22. shooting The sport of firing bullets from guns, sometimes to kill animals.

23. swimming - The activity of swimming underwater using special breathing equipment.

24. table tennis A game in which two or four people hit a small ball over a low net on a large table.

A game played like tennis with bats and a small plastic ball on a table with a net across it.

25. tae kwon do A sport originally from Korea, in which people fight with arms, legs, and feet. It is similar to karate.

A Korean system of fighting without weapons, similar to karate.

26. tennis A sport in which two or four people hit a small ball to each other over a net.

A game in which two or four players use rackets to hit a ball backwards and forwards across a net on a specially marked court to play tennis a tennis player/tournament/club/court.

27. trampoline A piece of sports equipment that you jump up and down on, made of a metal structure with a piece of strong material fixed to it.

A piece of equipment that is used in gymnastic for doing jumps in the air. It consists of a sheet of strong material that is attached by springs to a frame. 28. triathlon A competition in which the people competing must swim,

ride a bicycle, and run particular distances without stopping between events.

A sporting event in which people compete in three different sports, usually swimming, cycling and running.

29. volleyball A game in which two teams use their hands to hit a ball over a net without allowing it to touch the ground.

A game in which two teams of six players use their hands to hit a large ball backwards and forwards over a high net while trying not to let the ball touch the ground on their own side.

30. water polo A game played in water in which two teams of swimmers

try to get the ball into the other team‟s goal. A game played by two teams of people swimming in a swimming pool. Players try to throw a ball into the other team‟s goal.

31. weightlifting The activity of lifting heavy objects either as a sport or for exercise.

The sport or activity of lifting heavy weights.

32. wrestling A sport in which two people fight and try to push each other to the ground.

Table 4.1 revealed that both of the dictionaries used the different headwords for the definitions, meaning in using the word sport as the headword. Moreover, the headwords of the definitions were also not limited to the word sport only. In other words, the headwords in selected sports were various. There were some headwords that appeared in the definitions such as game, sport or activity, and exercise. In CLDO, there were nine headwords that were used in the definitions. They were sport, game, volleyball, activity, activity or sport, exercise and activity, event, equipment, and competition. Meanwhile, there were ten headwords in OALDO. They were art or sport, sport, game, volleyball, sport or activity, exercise, event, activity, system, and equipment. Table 4.2 will figure out the headwords that were used in CLDO and OALDO based on the frequency of the most used headwords in the dictionaries.

Table 4.2 Kinds of Headwords in the Definitions

Number

Headwords

CLDO OALDO

1. Sport Game

2. Game Sport

3. Activity Sport or activity

4. Volleyball Event

5. Activity or sport Volleyball 6. Exercise and activity Art or sport

7. Event Exercise

8. Equipment Activity

9. Competition System

10. Equipment

headwords in a simpler way, the frequency of headwords that were used in the definitions will be illustrated with Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3. As a result, this section will be divided into two main discussions according to each dictionary.

In conducting the analysis, the analysis of headwords in CLDO will become the first discussion, then followed by OALDO.

Figure 4.2 Kinds of Headwords in CLDO

From Figure 4.2, it could be understood that there were nine headwords which appeared in CLDO. The different headword was illustrated with the different colour in Figure 4.2.

To begin with, the definitions of the selected sports in CLDO were dominated by the headword sport. The headword sport was used 12 times. The headword sport was used in the definitions of archery, athletics, badminton, boxing, fencing, judo, rugby, sailing, shooting, Tae Kwon Do, tennis, and

38%

22% 3%

3% 3% 3%

3% 3% 6%

3% 13%

Headwords in

CLDO

Sport Game Volleyball

Exercise and activity Event

Activity or sport Equipment Competition Activity

wrestling. Whereas, the headword game was used seven times in basketball, football, golf, handball, table tennis, volleyball, and water polo. After sport and game, coming the headword activity as the third most used headword in the selected sports‟ definitions. The headword activity was used in canoeing and weightlifting. The other headwords also existed in the definitions such as volleyball, activity or sport, exercise and activity, event, equipment, and competition. However, the use of other headwords was only once in every sport. The other headwords which appeared once were volleyball in beach volleyball, activity or sport in diving, exercise and activity in gymnastic, event in pentathlon, equipment in trampoline, and competition in triathlon. Moreover, the researcher also faced that there was a sport which was not defined as a noun phrase. In fact, there was an adjective phrase in the definition of equestrian. In CLDO, equestrian is relating to riding horses. Last, there were four definitions of the sports that could not be found such as the definitions of cycling, hockey, rowing, and swimming.