gakushu sha no narateibu o yomu ： yuibutsu ron no kanten kara mite （dai ni bu）
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(2) Kinki University English Journal No.3. Introduction The purpose of this research is not to make any claims about how the learning of a foreign language takes place or to lend support to a model of the cognitive processes involved in its acquisition. Rather, as language learning, and in particular foreign language learning, is mostly confined to the context of educational institutions, it is imperative for researchers and teaching faculty to try to come to a better understanding of how learners in these institutions construct meaning of foreign language learning as lived experience, and how their experiences impact upon learning in the classroom as well as future learning experiences. In the first part of this article (Squires, 2008), I argued that subjectivity is produced and maintained according to the existing social, economic and political conditions. As "already-made" subjects, we are subjects to some authority such as the nation state and its institutions whose power is not in small part underwritten by ideology. Narrative is an important cultural form that we use to give meaning to our experiences, and allows us to become the subjects of our life stories and relate those experiences to others. By following the rules of narrative as a genre we give shape to our experiences and through this shared system we are able to relate our stories to others. Although there are commonalities to all narratives, each narrative follows its own "code of focalization" (Genette, 1980) which in turn creates a specific perspective and a space where the subject and his/her desires emerge. The act of reading, then, involves untangling the code in order to reveal underlying ideologies and the modes by which ideology is formative of desire to learn a foreign language. Following the foregoing theory of ideology and subjectivity, this paper will argue that all motivations ultimately originate exterior to the individual. In doing so it will be shown how the reading of student-produced narratives can help to shed light on one issue in quantitative research in second language acquisition (SLA): intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Moreover, as will be shown through a grounded analysis of narrative, the claim made by Self-Determination Theory that individuals innately strive to and become psychologically independent of their material conditions does not accurately capture the cultural dynamics of non-Western cultures. It is hoped that a close reading of narrative aided by a number of analytic tools from linguistics, pragmatics, and ethnology will enlighten the discussion on intrinsic/extrinsic motivation in SLA.. 66.
(3) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). Culture and the Study of Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation In Part 1, it was argued that inner psychic life, or consciousness, is formed as the individual becomes a subject in the realm of the symbolic. In the simplest of terms, pre-existing social and economic structures set boundaries along which we construct ways of thinking about ourselves and projecting these selves to others. This means that the idea of complete human freedom is merely an illusion, and it is one which ideology maintains through the functioning of institutions that exist to ensure that the status quo is preserved. The historically-situated individual has been, for the most part, lost in SLA research. Because the goal of mainstream motivation SLA research is to reveal the common factors that constitute motivation as a psychological construct and the ways in which these factors are related to each other, the individual and the culture of which he/she is a part are of only incidental interest at best. SLA has positioned itself not as a human science, but as a natural science, with the disembodied human as its object of study. Lacking all personal and social history, the subject is merely taken to be a faceless representative of a larger population. The materialist approach to the study of motivation would argue, in contrast, that culture (including socio-economic and political conditions) is of primary importance since it is within the culture of a specific time and place that the subject and his/ her desires emerge. In order to see how interiority and exteriority-namely how subjectivity and desire to learn foreign languages are created under particular ideological configurations-our point of departure will be the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation that has been developed in Self-Determination Theory and the application of this theory to the study of SLA.. Self-Determination Theory and SLA Motivation Research. In the tradition of Western philosophy and psychology, the self has been viewed as a unified being that actively thinks and engages in activities in the world. Working within the Western context, Deci and Ryan (1985) base their Self-Determination Theory (SDT) on what they call "organismic integration." According to these authors, the human being is an organism that has the innate desire to master his/her own behavior and develop independent functioning. The external world is necessary insofar as it provides support for the individual. This "nourishment" can come from both internal and external sources, and external regulation can be converted into more inter-. 67.
(4) Kinki University English Journal No.3. nal-like motivation through integration processes. Competency, relatedness and autonomy are all innate psychological needs that are part of the deep structure of the human psyche. The environment, or "external world," only presents the individual with conditions that will satisfy basic needs for self-determinacy and enhance or diminish the "internal world." The self-empowering and individualistic aspects of SDT have been embraced by a number of SLA researchers. One tenet of this theory that has been of most interest is the idea that learners naturally learn better when their motivation to learn comes from their intrinsic interest in the target language and/or culture and when they perceive that they have autonomy to control and direct their own learning. The most sustained studies of SDT have been conducted by a handful of Canadian researchers beginning in the late 1990s who have been particularly interested in the learning of second languages (French or English) in the Canadian context. Noels (2001) proposes a new model for understanding L2 learning motivation, where intrinsic and extrinsic orientations form two separate substrates, one that is related to the immediate learning situation and one that is related to the intergroup. "Orientations" in Noel's model refer to the relationships that obtain between the goal and the activity. When the goals are perceived by the learner to be part of the activity, this is intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation, on the other hand, is when the activity is perceived as being extraneous to the learning situation. Upon each of these substrates, the individual learner's motivation grows and develops. A learner with intrinsic orientation sees the immediate learning experience as being satisfying and enjoyable in itself without any reference to its outcomes. Conversely, the learner with extrinsic orientation sees the value in the activity of language learning only in that it has relevance to goals that are absent from the activity. The ideas of self-direction and autonomy fit well with general theories of education and human development in Western contexts; however, since SDT inheres a culturally specific notion of the self, we must seriously question whether or not the intrinsic/extrinsic dichotomy can be directly applied to the learning of foreign languages in other cultures that do not place prime importance upon the individual and independence. In Japan, for example, the self is conceived of as part of a larger group from which it gains its identity, and the situating of the self according to various groupings is vital to one's existence. For Hendry (1993), wrapping provides us with the most accurate metaphor for. 68.
(5) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). understanding the relationship of the individual to society in the Japanese context. The various types of wrapping (language, social relationships, space, power, etc.) are all ways in which identity comes to be contextually grounded. Moreover, as Bachnik (1994) reminds us, the metaphor of wrapping does not mean that there is a core to be found underneath all of the social wrappings, rather "the organization of self ... .is embedded in the social context, and includes the process by which participants constitute social situations, and thereby participate in a dynamic that includes the mutual process of them constituting and being constituted by social order" (p. 5, emphasis in original).. The dynamic of the relationship of the individual to society has been described by Sugimoto (2003) as friendly authoritarianism, a system which is highly transparent as to ideological formations and hierarchical power structures and is one in which individuals both comply and compete according to expected forms of behavior. At the same time, the system fosters conciliatory compliance through various means including positive reinforcements for compliance, corporate visions of authority figures as benevolent, and a comforting ideology of equality and homogeneity. The notion of an independent and autonomous self is, therefore, unlikely to be found as it is in Western cultures.. Subjectivity in Modality. The importance of social context for the concept of self in Japanese culture requires that we ground our reading of learner-produced narratives in a principled method that does not seek its legitimacy in other disciplines, but in a diverse set of tools that is used with sensitivity to the culture. For this paper, I will rely mainly upon narratology, ethnography, and linguistics. In Part 1 of this article, I argued that locating how the subject is constructed and maintained within narrative is closely tied to Genette's (1980) idea of focalization. The analogy from linguistics that Genette uses to understand how point of view is developed is that of mood. While mood can be technically defined as a "formally grammaticalized category of the verb which has a modal function" (Bybee & Fleischman, 1995, p. 2), modality, on the other hand, is a term with broader connotations. Modality expresses the speaker's psychological attitude (Palmer, 1986) or the speaker's subjectivity (Lyons, 1977) through the use of various linguistic forms (Bybee & Dahl, 1989). These can include the various forms of the verb that Genette enumer-. ates, but it can also include other types of morphology, lexis, syntax and. 69.
(6) Kinki University English Journal No.3. paralinguistic features. Modality operates not at the isolated linguistic level, but can only be understood in situational context in which it is used. As the creation of perspective through the act of narration is the focus here, we need to recognize that it is through the narrator of a homodiegetic (i.e. autobiographical) narrative that the subjectivity of the narrator is produced. The narrative takes shape through the text and its cohesion through various devices, both linguistic and pragmatic, and reveals the subjectivity of the narrator and obliquely its author. The coalescence of the text and its cohesion focuses the narrator as subject, or "speaking 1." Cohesion is produced by what Maynard (1993) calls "discourse modality." She ex-. plains what this is as: information that does not or only minimally conveys objective propositional message content. Discourse modality conveys the speaker's subjective emotional, mental or psychological attitude toward the message content, the speech act itself or toward his or her interlocutor in discourse. Discourse modality operates to define and foreground certain ways of interpreting the propositional content in discourse; it directly expresses the speaking self's personal voice on the basis of which the utterance is intended to be meaningfully interpreted. (pp. 38-39) Maynard argues that our understanding of how the speaking subject expresses himself/herself requires that our linguistic analysis, or unwrapping of discourse, recognize two levels: the propositional content level and the discourse modality level. The propositional content never surfaces directly but is always filtered by discourse elements. Within narrative discourse, the "code of focalization" always takes a psychological attitude toward the story; and therefore, the given context, the way it is imbedded into the ongoing text and how the sentence is uttered, will reveal the "speaking I" to the reader. The different ways that a proposition can be entered into discourse are affected by what Maynard calls "discourse modality indicators." These include paralinguistic indicators, syntactic indicators, independent indicators, complex indicators and multiphrase indicators. Discourse modality indicators add nothing to the referential meaning of an utterance; the motivation for their use is in the speaker who uses them to qualify the information contained in the proposition (manipulating perspective, status of information, epistemic modality, and overall discourse cohesion), declaring and qualifying the speech act, controlling participation, and making interactional appeals.. 70.
(7) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). In addition to these indicators, discourse modality can also be manipulated by lexical choice and sentence structure. The "speaking 1" emerges not only at the story level as reflected in his/her actions, but just as important is how the story elements are positioned in the overall text and the relationship of the text to the social milieu in which it is embedded. As many authors have argued, Japanese language depends more heavily upon context than languages such as English. One important way in which context is made meaningful is through the organization of experience through the distinction between uchi (inside) and soto (outside). The importance of this distinction can be seen in many. aspects of Japanese culture, including language, social hierarchies, rituals and rites of passage, and socialization. The uchilsoto distinction is not inflexible or deterministic; rather it is a dynamic yet important means for structuring experience to which Japanese culture gives high importance. Uchilsoto is not in itself an ideology, but the binary opposition imparts an underlying logic to many of the ideological configurations present in the culture. As ideology serves to create legitimacy for the existing modes and relations of production and how individuals construct themselves as cultural subjects there will always be a subtle interplay between uchilsoto. This distinction and its subtle manipulation as a principle for the construction of self and society is made clear in the metaphor of wrapping. Material as well as the self and the way in which they are wrapped are in many ways as important as what is being wrapped. In fact, I would argue that the wrapping and wrapped are indivisible and equally important in the construction of cultural and interpersonal meaning. Unwrapping, then, ought to be considered an act of interpretation, and following the lead set by Genette's narratological project, we need to understand how the numerous layers of narrative together reveal the "speaking I" through its construction of subjectivity and narrative perspective.. Data Collection The narrative presented below is one of a number of stories (both oral and written) that have been collected from current students and former students of foreign languages (English as well as other languages) at the university level in Japan. Japanese was the language that all of the participants were asked to give their narratives. There were two reasons for this. First, because the participants' English proficiency levels varied greatly, it was felt that allowing the students to tell their stories 71.
(8) Kinki University English Journal No.3. in their native language would provide much richer detail about their learning experiences and motivation to learn, and it would also make it easier to make comparisons between the narratives. Second, as the purpose of this research is to understand how learners construct subjectivity in educational institutions, writing in the language of the native culture will more accurately reflect the way in which subjectivity is tied to ideology in the context of Japanese higher learning. The author of the narrative presented in this article had recently graduated from a national university of foreign studies in Western Japan. "Ayumi" had studied Vietnamese during the first two years at the university, and before telling her story she expressed that as a result of experiences that she had both inside and outside of the classroom she had become more motivated during this time. Two specific events that she recounts in narrative form reveal that she was made more aware of the value that learning Vietnamese had for her academic career and gave her the motivation that was necessary to persevere in her study of the language.. Analysis Narrative Structures and Storied Versions of the World. The use of narratives in the study of the human sciences has burgeoned since the middle of the twentieth century. Narrative analyses are now commonly seen in psychology, health sciences, policy studies, history, cultural studies and even within disciplines that have held up empirical methods as the most objective means for understanding physical phenomena. This points to the uniqueness of narrative to humans as a language-endowed species and the importance of narrative to the way we experience the world and created shared meanings. In discussing the relationship between language and narrative, Bruner (1986) argues that there are two types of language. The type of meaning making that he calls the paradigmatic is a mode of human thought that operates with abstract concepts, establishes truth by appealing to procedures of formal logic, and searches for the causality that leads to universal truth conditions. This is the language that is used by researchers to define, investigate and interpret phenomena. Individuals also actively use language to construct particular versions of the social world and to create identity. This meaning making is the other type of human thought that Bruner introduces: narrative. The storied mode of human thought deals with human volition and the actions that bring about these intentions. Unlike the 72.
(9) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). paradigmatic mode which makes its argument of truth by adherence to objective rules of logic, the narrative mode of thought establishes its truth by its grounding in human experience, Where the paradigmatic seeks to establish empirical truth and functions by using logical propositions, the narrative mode of thought does not function through universal truth conditions but through connections between events, Narrative, as Bruner goes further to note, is constructed of two psychological realms, or two storied "landscapes." The components of the "landscape of actions" are the arguments of action, which include the agent, intention, situation and instrument. The other realm, the "landscape of consciousness," maps what those who are involved in the action of a story know, think or feel. This idea of a dual landscape of narrative argues for a view of narrative that is not a simple account of what happened, but it implies that there is also (an) interlocking psychological perspective(s) about those events. Narratives are, of course, cultural products. What is meant by this is that narrative as a genre has distinctive structure and content which allows us not only to recognize narrative when we see or hear it, but also as a genre it enables us to give shape to our own stories so that transmit those experiences to others who share in the same cultural matrix (Todorov, 1968). As language learning is a situated and human endeavor, individuals do not make sense of their experiences through setting up hypotheses and testing them, but rather they do so by constructing stories and these stories we tell (as well as the stories that we listen to) inform our future interpretation of new experiences (Schank & Abelson, 1995). All types of knowledge, we might argue then, are part of an interlocking web of storytelling and story understanding. In his analysis of narrative, Labov (1972) argues that fully-formed narratives have six parts. The abstract opens the narrative with a summary of the main points of the narrative. This is followed by the orientation which gives the time, place, situation and participants in the story. The complicating action(s) are the sequence of events that explain what happened. The evaluation gives the significance and meaning of the actions as well as the attitude of the narrator. The resolution tells what finally happened. Finally, the coda returns the perspective of the narrative to the present point. Based upon my own research on Japanese narratives (Squires, 2001), I would argue that a tripartite structure of narratives is the most culturally significant form that stories take. The setting includes Labov's first two elements. These may not be sequenced as abstract-orientation, but rather they may be woven together to create a. 73.
(10) Kinki University English Journal No.3. view of the narrator (in homodiegetic narratives the "narrator-hero") as he/she was prior to the events of the narrative. The setting also introduces a tension that will need to be worked through in the second part of the narrative. The complicating action(s) make(s) up the majority of the narrative, and in the complicating action(s) we follow the narrator-hero through one or more episodes in which he/she may have to overcome some kind of impasse or trial. In this part as well, the conditions introduced in the setting are often inverted or there is movement to a space that is structurally opposite from that of the setting. Finally, in the reintegration, the narrator-hero returns to the original setting, however, there will have been some change to the narratorhero (and perhaps the original setting as well). Any tension or disequilibrium present in the setting comes to a resolution and the narrator-hero concludes the narrative by giving his/her evaluation of the meaning of the story.. Setting: The University and Its Subjects. In the setting, Ayumi introduces the listener to the situation and the main participants in the narrative. This section contextualizes the entire narrative by situating the story in a specific time and space, thereby providing a culturally specific interpretive frame in which the listener is able to ground a reading of how the narrator constructs her subjectivity in relationship with the other characters in the narrative.. Clause. 3 4. 7. 8 9. (1). Originalill. English. My university was such-and-such university, and this university which was the one I was going to ~&, ~VE~&iJ)~:f1{iffli':f.ft~::tJ -C(j:,'f:ri-tt everyone, every student had to have a major IvT Gt.:o language. ~:f1{llfti':~lvTA.:5AtHl,(i, There were people who had chosen a major language when they entered, there were also those who chose a major without having a major language, and those people who chose a major without having a major language, §lI!IJl¥J (:~:f1{iffli':"Ff,(1JtljiJ' .; i*~ ';;j1,.:5 :/ AT.L. it was a system in which their major language (: tJ .-, -C, ' i "9 a was chosen automatically by the school. I chose a major called comparative culture. fL(j:.ltttX{~C"7~:f1{i':~U:i U': o -c ()) ~(:24'r OOiffli':iIF,' t.:~i'::b t.: ~ ;j1, -C At that time a sheet with 24 languages written on it was passed out, and there I marked my preferences, first was French;. «. False starts and hesitations have been removed.. 74.
(11) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). 11. =iIHj:~jjgt.:. 12. -"'. ~ T L. jjg~f"JiIH:>ftlft: 1;, li)t;t -z:: IH' 'i -It A.,. 13. Ij-n'!:' {, "C 0), W:J&jjglinX:*liJlIlU:::~66'; n 7.> 0) "'('. -:>. t: cii!H' i T. 16. fLO)nX:*li1;'''C nf¥~ <tj, 1;' -:> t: t: 66-"'. ~ T L.jjgl::: [HJ~ni U: o I::: 1!ff < -Z::, ::i-lt.-b'':;' {,O)Ii1!ff<-Z:: t: t':'.!ji.1ftH£ -:> -Z::$~"'(',. 17. :ijU,&1;'~i. 14. 15. *. -:>. -z:: \ ,t:O) li-1f=1fO) Fa9 t.: 1ft.:' -:> t:. 0)"'('. 18 19. ",(". ~1f1;''; !"I7tO)w:r'o)~~I:::AnnlH'\'c. ,'e!. -:> -z:: i. L, t:o. second was English, I think, I don't remember what number I marked Vietnamese, but major languages were decided according to one's grades, so because my grades were not that good, I was put in Vietnamese, In particular, I had nothing called a "goal," it was just that I wanted to get credit and graduate, and they determined promotion in the Vietnamese language class only during the first and second years, so during that time I thought I would get all the credits, and from the third year ifI could take classes in my major that would be okay,. From Clause 1 though Clause 8, the narrator introduces the listener to the institution in which she was a student by explaining the conditions under which she began study of Vietnamese by first stating how the institutional "system". (~A. T J,.) functions,. The university, the narrator informs us, separates students into two distinct groups: those who enter with a chosen major language, and those who enter with a major subject but with no specific major language, Ayumi tells us that she was part of the latter group since she had chosen comparative culture as her major. The system of categorizing students and the method by which the university decided the major languages of those students who did not have one when they matriculated, are set up by the narrator as facts as is evidenced in her use of the extended predicate (I: tJ Furthermore, it is a system that operates automatically. (EUWEr.~J!:). "?. -C ~ \. *-g).. and thus it is be-. yond the power of anyone-be it student, teacher or administrator-to change the way that the university functions. The opening lines of the setting also reveal that the structure of this system is built on a series of hierarchical oppositions: the university and the student body, and the two types of students. The social order of the university as an institution also lays down the boundaries of uchilsoto which not only demarcate how individuals are expected to relate to each other, but also allows the potential for subverting these boundaries. Since narrative structures are culturally shared ways of organizing knowledge and experience, the listener/reader expects that the subsequent complicating actions will introduce chaos or disrupt to the order in the setting and lead to an ultimate return to order in the reintegration section with the narrator-hero and/or situation changed in significant ways. 75.
(12) Kinki University English Journal No.3. In further development of the narrator-hero and her relationship to the institution, Ayumi recounts her own actions in regard to her answers on the questionnaire used to place students in language classes. This form, she tells us, was "passed around:' and she was placed in the Vietnamese language class based upon her answers. The way in which these events are told indicate that she sees herself as not being fully in control of the situation. While this part of the setting recounts the actions of the narrator, we notice that several passive constructions are employed. The passive is, according to Maynard (1993), a discourse modality indicator, which is used to express the speaker's (or narrator's) own viewpoint (i.e. his/her subjectivity) upon experience. The core event if expressed in its semantic structure is ditransitive: an agent distributes some object (patient) to a second entity (goal). The unmarked surface form would be an active sentence that reflects these three semantic roles: someone gives the questionnaire to the students. The surface form used by the narrator is, however, a passive construction, and as the passive is commonly used to transform the logical or propositional elements of the sentence. This marked form of entering information into the texture of the narrative is key in its indication of the feelings of the narrator and its use contributes to a unified perspective on the narrative events. The Japanese passive, unlike many other languages is used for more than formmg direct passives; it can also be used to index subject adversity or subject honorification, thus there may be multiple pragmatic functions at work in its pragmatic use. The reading of this section of the narrative, therefore, requires the reader to be aware of the subtle uses of the passive in Japanese as well as within the narrative itself. Not only is the passive used to maintain story focus on the narrator, but language itself is co-constructive of ideology (Volosinov, 1973) and limits the way m which subjects can emerge in relationship to these institutions (Althusser, 1971). The first use of the passive (Clause 5) is predicated with the verb pass out/distribute. Cmt-t). This is a transitive verb, however the grammatical construction here. is not a direct passive since the patient is still marked as accusative. As the narratorhero is the topic (from the previous sentence) this would be the indirect object of the matrix clause sentence and produce an adversative passive reading. From the context, however, this still does not make it clear who is the directing force of the verb; unless the only reading is that the narrator was negatively affected by this event. In a reinterpretation of the central meaning of the Japanese passive, Oshima (2003) argues that the passive encodes that the referent of the grammatical subject 76.
(13) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). lacks controlling force on the core event. The added subordinate subject, on the other hand, refers to an entity to which the absence of controlling force is attributed. In Ayumi's description of the passing around of the questionnaire, clearly the subordinate subject is not a single identifiable entity but rather the university. The perspective developed by this sentence derives from more than just the "out of control" reading. As Wierzbicka (1988) argues, the Japanese passive is multiply ambiguous. While the clause may hold an adversative passive reading, the passive verb also indicates a degree of deference given to the institution by the narrator. The honorific use of the passive here notes that it is the subordinate subject, i.e. the university, who controls the core event without any intervening force that prevents or prohibits its actions (Oshima, 2003). The narrator's subjectivity within the perspective of discourse modality emerges not independently of the historical context, but rather simultaneously with the university, the primary actor in education and the creator of subject positions. Finally, the pragmatic function of the passive is further enhanced by the absence of the university at the surface level of these sentences. Construction of texts involves thematization and discourse cohesion (Halliday & Hasan, 1976), and Japanese discourse, unlike languages such as English, requires less overt marking of the theme. Instead, Japanese places greater burden upon the reader to actively participate in the construction of texts by supplying the missing discourse anaphora. By effacing the institution at the surface level of these sentences, the narrator forces the reader to rely upon textual and contextual clues. For meaning to be constructed, a null anaphora must be recovered from the text (Hasegawa, 1984), and by forcing the reader to do this the author constructs a text in which the institution comes to have unspoken authority over the narrative. The language of the text draws the reader into its ideological world and obliges the reader to recognize and identify with the underlying social hierarchy of the system in order to interpret the text correctly (Currie, 1995). All meanings in the narrative are directly tied to the ideology of the institution, and it is within this all-powerful institution that individuals take up their already-made roles through which desire is produced (Althusser, 1971; Lacan, 1977).. 77.
(14) Kinki University English Journal No.3. Complicating Action J: Trip to Vietnam. In the next two episodes, Ayumi relates how certain events affected the way she viewed studying the L2 and how her motivation changed.. Clause. 20. Original ~f*U'i-())rEl' I=fJJq) -C "" j~IH~!'){ ~. English. H- 1.. C ~,-j. i'i-'I~~ff-g. 21 22. titiJU=mvn-c. 23. i'i-'I <b 5! -c ii Co -j !,), tJ ..., -C ~ , -j J: -j tJ 3af;f ij c:. 24. ij. ~. ~CoC:""~~1...m~~-j~~~~...,-c. 26. ~~I= ~ ()) l' T -1 /()) At:: ij !,){1'r~ Co 1...~\'t~~..., -c~, 7.> f*c !,)'~~~I= 1''I7tc: 5!. 27. c:, "" r~1...ml=x'H.;-c,. 28. tJ IV!,)', f.!im~n"* c:li~n"* c:li"'?> GtJ ~ 'f' l:ttH' <b ()) c!,)' 5~flliHr..H= "'?> G ~ n n '7.> <b ()) ..., -c ~, -j J: -j tJ t:: t::·1jtl=,w § c: L,!,),tJ!,)'"" t::1V -C'-g l:t c' 13mc!,)', f.l.li<bc<bc3t1t.I=l!l!~!,){~...,-c. 29 30 31. 33 34. "*~~, 13~\'t~"'?>...,-c~'7.>!,)'G,. J;...,. C lA::~ffl=lfj!,)'I:tt::IVc:-g,:tc',. *. 36 37. "". 40 41. c:,. ~,-j :!If.~c:l!l!~!,){mH. ~m"c-'~;5~-g. ~ ~. ~,. -c ~'-j !,),. ~())3t1t.())1f~c L,-c13m...,-c~m=fftE-g7.>. 35. ~. -c."" ~ ~. 13~\'t <b3t1t.())~~ffih. ()) tJ ()) c: -g::: <. ~ -j. 38. 7.>. ..., -C. <b. '-c. 7.> J: IJ <b. 1.. mc:~~-g 7.> Ia: -j !,){~?l:~!,){5lj!t,' L". -j ~, -j Co C ~ L, -c t:: G"" r ~ 1.. ~\'t!,){-g ::: <. !£f ~ 1= tJ..., -C ~-c tit.<bC:~7.>L" • ...,-c~-C~G ~. <b -j ~@]ff~t::~'..., -c,\!I,-j J: -j I=tJ...,-C c:/Xff <. c ~"* -C. 1= Ii <b -j ij J; ..., C -j"* <. tJ IJ t:: ~ , ..., -C ,\!I,..., t:: ())!,){ ~ ..., !,), ,:tiC:: c ,\!I, ~ , "* -g 0. During spring vacation, I had the opportunity to travel around the country called Vietnam, I was invited by a friend, well, since I was doing the language, it was with the feeling like I should see the country, and I left on a short trip. There I had the opportunity to use Vietnamese, and in fact all of those native speakers, actually see .. ing for myself those people using Vietnamese, and in regard to Vietnamese, somehow, well, until that point it was some .. thing that I just had to do, or it was something I was forcibly made to do, it was only like a school subject, the language or, originally I had an interested in the culture, and I thought that I wanted to continue doing the culture; the language too is part of culture, the fact that because the language absolutely exists as the background of that culture, really it was for this reason that my interest grew, and more than speaking English speaking in Vietnamese was totally stimulat.. ing, and because I did that I came to really like Vietnamese, I was able to make friends, and when I came back home I thought that I wanted to go back again, and until the next time I could go I wanted to get a little bit better, I thought, that was the beginning.. In the first complicating action, Ayumi tells how her short visit to Vietnam during spring vacation (between her freshman and sophomore years) changed the way she felt about studying the language and how that altered view was the beginning of her increased desire to study Vietnamese in earnest. This episode contrasts remarkably from the way in which the setting was narrated. Whereas in the setting Ayumi oriented the reader by explaining the system and the subjectivities that the university. 78.
(15) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). creates she uses the passive voice to construct a perspective on the situation of a student who is forced into studying a language, here that passive position is replaced by one which is active and in control of her desire to learn Vietnamese. The transformation in this section is divided into three sections: the invitation to visit Vietnam, the evaluation of experiences during the trip, and her changed outlook on learning. The episode opens with the narrator telling us that she had the opportunity to visit Vietnam for a short time during spring vacation between her freshman and sophomore years. The narratorial perspective that was developed in the setting-namely that of a student whose subjectivity and desires are shaped by outside forces-continues here as the narrator tells us of the opportunity. (11~). that she. had after being invited by another student. It is implied that the trip to Vietnam was not something the narrator would have undertaken unless she had been given this opportunity, and Clauses 20 through 25, therefore, act as a bridge between her experience as an unmotivated/extrinsically motivated L2 learner in the setting, to a more intrinsically motivated L2learner, which will be elaborated throughout the remainder of the narrative. For example, she describes the country that her friend invited her to travel as "that country called Vietnam" ('". r T J..,. c l \ -j 00). with the to yuu construc-. tion that contrasts sharply with her narration of the "known" Vietnam or the Vietnam that she experienced and wanted to know more about by the end of the narrative. Her active experiencing of the country during her trip begins to shift the narrative perspective toward a more active narratorial stance. In particular, it is her seeing things for herself ~;O\~<tJ). (~~. §)fC:: j! "() and speaking ('". rT. J..,.1mC::~1:-'9 Q (;I -j ;O\1t~. that provide the impetus for her realization that studying Vietnamese may. be more important to her goal of graduating from university, however, now she reinterprets this goal as being tied to her experience of the country and finding that the language is essential to her ultimate goal of learning about the other cultures. This section is particularly interesting in the way that she positions her statements about the relationship between culture and language as a fact in support of her new found interest in the language. "Language is part of the culture," she reasons, and "the fact that the language absolutely exists as the background of that culture" (§ ~ft b)( {t O)-ltffij -:J. "(. l \ -j ;0) -c 0))( {to) 1f~. c L, "( § 1m. -:J " (. *frxf I:ifff'9 Q b 0) tJ 0) c::).. Following her travel to Vietnam, Ayumi gives herself an immediate goal in her study of the language. Since she was able to speak the language, realized that 79.
(16) Kinki University English Journal No.3. language is a part of culture and was able to make friends, she tells the reader that she was invigorated to study so that she could go back again to Vietnam. This is regardless of the fact that her more distant goal remained simply to graduate from university. Overall, when narrating this important event that changed her motivation to study Vietnamese, Ayumi uses the active voice. This contrasts sharply to how she narrated how she began studying Vietnamese, indicating that she perceives herself as becoming the agent of her actions.. Complicating Action 2: The Return. Invigorated by her trip to Vietnam, in her sophomore year, Ayumi is enrolled in a Vietnam language class in which she has to give a number of speeches.. Clause. Original. 42. ~7.>~I;:-AO)5t&=.;O', &=.tJ Iu -c-t l:tn. 43. fM'~£'(-t 7.> ]llIIilto). c' {". English. -t'::OIH" < -cffi"ltJ5t Once, one teacher, he was a strict and famous. B I;: t.:. t.: 0) ;0',. *t.: *. -'?> 7.> ~;O,tJ;O'-::>. 44. fLO)~£'(;O', fLO)~£,( lillU' 1;:,%1;\;0' -::>. ~. ~<D~,~<D~-c~~<-c,. 47. 5' J\:J C ;O'~n&:bn -C G -::>-C -c, fll''3 IN;O' t.: -::> t.: 0) -c ,. 48 49. n c' {". t.: Iu -c-t l:t. *. • • :~£,(~*~0)~.~-C~3, 4@~£,(-t7.> ~~;O,~. -::> t.:UY!,71u-C-tt:t c',. 50 51. ~X'1, ~m:266 -C. 52. L' L' v ;f, -. * *. {, .; :jo 7 C ,'GI, -::> -C, G-C 'i~jlUI;:i!Z!~!ll-t 7.>. ~n -C ~ I) 'i~o)~.I;: ~ 7 I;:tJ I) U': o. " ~~.:. 7 C ,'GI, -::> t.: .;,. 53. 54 55. ~ O)~.'i)otm1!RO)§mO)iJiim~X;Jt1¥J I;:m1!R. G-C,. 56 57. ~£,(-t7.> CL'7 {'O)t:-::>t.:Iu-c-tI:tnc·{', • • I¥JI;: iiE/ii-c-tJ cL'7 :joft66O)§~~nh~ *U': o. teacher, the day when it was my turn to give a speech, from time to time, maybe he didn't feel in the mood, my speech, my speech in fact was bad, but it wasn't that his attitude toward listening at all,and little by little as my speech went on he smoked a cigarette, and I was plenty angry, so in the end my speech, perhaps in that class we had the chance to make speeches three or four times, but definitely I wanted him to approve, from that time on, as regards that class, I started to study seriously. I thought, ''I'm going to write a good report," and because I started to listen to people's opinions, and my own study, more than before, it progressed I think. It was the kind of class in which we analyzed grammatically the speeches of the prime minister, and gave speeches, but in the end, "Correct," were the words of praise that I received.. In this section of the narrative, the narrator sets the scene as a battle between. 80.
(17) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). her teacher and herself as a student. The shift in perspective as this episode begins jolts the reader back into the context of the educational institution. Again discourse modalities as narrative strategies are deployed here to construct point of view. The teacher is introduced and described in a relative clause in the extended predicate that serves pragmatically to explain his behavior because he is "strict and famous." Furthermore, his actions during the speech ~not listening to Ayumi's speech and smoking~though. deplorable, are licensed by the unlimited power of the institution of. which he is a representative. His actions are clearly beyond the reasoning of a mere student (t:::. it:::. i "? Q 5fJ..7J),tJ. 7J\ ~ t:::. 0) 7J\) and in the end Ayumi concludes that it may be her fault as she explains away her teacher's behavior to her poor performance (f1.O)~~Hl:1it7J\ ':~7J\ ~. t:::. IV -C-t 1t n c' b).. Yet as we know from the previous episode, the narrator returned to the university quite motivated to learn the language. Her intrinsic motivation to learn Vietnamese, however, has come up against a wall: educational institutions that cannot recognize intrinsically motivated behaviors. Desire to learn for learning's own sake can never be part of the signifying system of universities since individual intrinsic motivation has no way of being articulated in the institutional system. Furthermore, intrinsic motivation does not contribute to the reproduction of the relations of production. Autonomous students can never be part of the university system since their acknowledged existence would create anomalies in a system which thrives on creating and categorizing subjects based upon their observable and measurable performance. Thus, we see how the formerly passive and powerless student now takes control of the situation by reshaping this intrinsic motivation into an appropriate and approved behavior for the institutional context: "getting the teachers approval." By working hard at the language and modifying her study skills until she finally receives the praise of her teacher. In contrast to the previous section in which the narrator relates how she found great interest in the culture and thus became interested in studying the language, here she recasts herself as the typical Japanese university student facing the authority of the teacher. She speaks of her role in this experience by enumerating performances that are typical of the traditional student: studying hard, writing good reports, listening to the opinions of others. -5 C li!!, ~ t:::. G" A 0) ~5! i- J:. (J{~iJ ':5i'1J5~-t Q. J: -5 ,: tJ. IJ i lA:o l) l) \..I ~ -. ~. i-if.:::.. <Iifl <J: -5 ,: tJ. Q 0) -C). These behaviors of a good student 81.
(18) Kinki University English Journal No.3. result in her ability to study (13 5t0)5fiJ5~ <b -C ih i -C ct V) 'ijiA.d::· c .~,~ \ i -g). As a result of her embodiment of the ideologically prescribed traits of a good student, Ayumi is able to receive the approval of her teacher. The praise received from her teacher is simply stated as, "Correct," an evaluation that may be interpreted as a pronouncement upon her journey from being a non-motivated student outside (soto) of the inner circle of more highly motivated students (uchil in the class through her realization of the importance of language to the study of culture and intrinsic motivation to learn Vietnamese, and translation of that intrinsic motivation into a subject position in an institution which only acknowledges extrinsically motivated behaviors. Her transformation, therefore, is also deigned to be correct by a representative of the university. Thus, in this episode the narrator repositions herself in the role of a typical student, borrowing the language of institutional authority and descriptions of culturally constructed roles of teacher and student. This episode can also be read more broadly as a clear example of how intrinsic motivation is necessarily subsumed by extrinsically motivated behaviors because of the types of subjects that institutions produce and the relations which obtain between these subjects.. Reintegration: Crossing Borders. The final section of the narrative describes how the narrator who has now received recognition by the institution as being a "correct," is finally reintegrated within the structure of the university and in her relationship with other students. Because the highly motivated students are those students who chose to study Vietnamese, the narrator presents herself as becoming part of that group of institutionally-recognized motivated students.. Clause ~. Original. English. ~hi~~W.t, B*m~~~Lm~W.L~. As for before this time, I only used a JapaneseVietnamese dictionary, I had no desire to use one, I looked in several dictionaries, looked for exactness, I was thinking, "Oh, it's enough just to do the homework," but not only did I do that, I also started to follow the lesson. Later, until then those students who chose Vietnamese when they entered, a little, there was something like a ditch, however,. fJI! -:d::., fJI! -5 ~ MIIUJ' -:J t::. L ~1!]~l(~W.~JiI.-C. 59 60. iEliii;: ~*1J6 ~. 61. IftH.!iii~. c ii',. -:J -C,'lti;H',,~ J. c,~'-:J "'n't::.lv~. TIt C' t, 62 63. ~~t:lt~i;l:t.J:. M. ~c, ~hi~~~~Lm~~Iv~A-:Jft~c~ i;UJ: -C t::.~~ t:, J. ci!IJ7:J.t::.' ,tJ: ~ii'~-:J t::.Iv~Tlth t,. 7 :t 13 -. <-C,. c ii'iiT Co" <T ~ J:: -5 1::tJ: I) i. < A -:J. c'. -:J. Lt::.o. t. 82.
(19) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). 65 66. fL(;J:A; )- TJ.,.;/)'l!f~ r:tJ -:> t:.Iv-C, -cO)~lvt~''fclffi;/)'il'-:> t:.1J i"7.> J; -j !::tJ -:>-C,. 67 68 69. flJl,& <tJ -:> t:. -= c t, ~ -:> -c, ll1J%l~-,m!::. -c -j t, -j J, -j. -c,. Lt:.1J C;/)', 7.>.§1*;/)'* L,. !::ll1J~mi". <tJ -:> -c ~. 70. '7 '77-0)'1''1::),.-:> -Ct'-C t". 71. ~*-C~§~~~Iv-C~-:>k~m-C~~~-:>kO). 72. f.!im;@;f[J~ C;/)'. 73 74. ~7.>:5{\.!::tJ-:>t:.';. -C,. 75. -c-j. t, :JU, -C t:.1v -Ci" If c',. t'-j;@;f[J~c;/)'t,i~;t -C~-C,. -C-CO)'7'77-~t,-j~~-:>c*c*-:>kJ;-j~:5{\.. * Lt:.o-:> JfZh * Lt:.o. because I had come to like Vietnamese, those students who had chosen Vietnamese, I started to talk to them, we became close, and we studied together, and in that way studying itself became enjoyable, and even when I was in class, because it was not the same language that I had faced until this time, I remember having the feeling of being rather out of place, but when I had the motivation this feeling of being out of place disappeared, and the class became a little bit close-knit,. ;/)' L,. 76. f.!imJ-c 0). ~. ~:j3lffi L, L, t:.. >' /\::J ~iJ& -:> t:.5tJto). ~~-C(;J:~f*,;lj.;gJ::-cm,\!jj~. ~. Lt:.:j3;/)'I:f-C ["" AJ. Finally, before, for the class with the teacher who smoked, I forwent winter vacation and due to my performance on the assignment, I was able to get an "A,". In complete contrast with to the situation presented at the beginning of the narrative, Ayumi now describes herself as one of those students, Her reintegrated self came about, as she tells us, by being able to cross over a ditch (mizo), The metaphor here distills the essence of her narrative and underscores the importance of culture in allowing individuals to express their subjectivity, Ditches demarcate boundaries separating things which are outside (soto) from things which are inside (uchi), What this boundary separates is, in the narrator's words, students who chose to study Vietnamese (and therefore more intrinsically motivated) and others. The power of institutions to categorize is acknowledged by the narrator, and the authority of this discourse and its ability to discipline (Foucault, 1977) and coerce individuals to discipline themselves into accepting the way institutions categorize individuals. A significant feature of this final part of Ayumi's narrative is that the she mentions important segments from the first section of her narrative and one of her anchor events. In particular, although she had stressed in the third section that the chance of going to Vietnam, speaking, making friends and finding the culture interesting enough to motivate her language study, the most important part of her motivation as she narrates is how she was able to become a changed subject within the social structure of the traditional Japanese university system. By finding a new reason to study the language, this, she stresses, allows her to become one of the motivated students and in conclusion she was able to get an "A" in the class from the professor who had 83.
(20) Kinki University English Journal No.3. been smoking during one of her presentations. Having read Ayumi's narrative we can imagine that if the subject took one of the traditional motivation research questionnaires she might score high on both instrumental and integrative orientations, leaving us with a picture of a student who has somewhat of a mixed motivational profile. It is difficult to say how that kind of questionnaire analysis would interpret her situation. What can be seen in this reading of narrative is that integrative orientations are interacting with instrumental integrations in very subtle and culturally specific ways, despite the fact that mainstream motivation research necessitates that culture is coincidental. Instead, a materialistic approach argues that perhaps nothing more than culture and socioeconomic conditions are formative of subjectivity and desire. For Ayumi the defining element in her motivation narrative is clearly "the system," and her narrative, more than being a narrative about L2 learning motivation, is constructed as a narrative of fitting into the system and finding a way to be recognized by the institution as a motivated student of Vietnamese.. Conclusion Narrative analysis allows us to witness on a small scale how subjects are created and how individuals produce and reproduce their existence within historically determined conditions. Research on the interplay of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in SLA has enlightened us about the number of factors that influence learners and the complex relationship between these factors for language learning in general. How these factors are part of a specific learner's experience and how these factors must also be considered within cultural context were two questions driving the current research. This study has maintained the subjects are bound to the culture in which they exist and their desires and motivations are a product of their becoming subjects in a particular culture at a particular historical juncture. If desires, needs and motivations are produced by social systems, then can intrinsic motivation really be spontaneously generated with human organisms? Do all human beings by natural instinct alone strive to act independently? Clearly as Ayumi's narrative reveals, the value attached to the pursuing of a goal for its own sake can only take shape as it is subsumed under larger desires to conform to prescribed subject positions within a social system and its particular ideological formations.. 84.
(21) A Materialist Approach to Reading Learners' Narratives (Part 2) (Squires). References. Althusser, L. (1971). Lenin and philosophy and other essays. (B. Brewster, Trans.). Surrey: New Left Books. Atkinson, D. (2002). Toward a sociocognitive approach to second language acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 86, 525-545.. Bachnik, J. (1994). Introduction: uchilsoto: challenging our conceptualizations of self, social order, and language. In J. Bachnik & C. J. Quinn (Eds.), Situated meaning: inside and outside in Japanese self, society, and language, 3-37. Princeton: Princeton University. Press. Bruner, J. (1986). Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Bybee, J. & Dahl, O. (1989). The creation of tense and aspect systems in the languages of the world. Studies in Language, 13, 51-103. Bybee, J. & Fleischman, S. (1995). Modality in grammar and discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Currie, M. (1998). Postmodern narrative theory. Houndmills, England: Palgrave Macmillan. Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.. Foucault, M. (1977). Discipline and punish: the birth of the prison. (Alan Sheridan, Trans.). New York: Random House. (Original work published 1975.) Genette, G. (1980). Narrative discourse. (J. E. Lewin, Trans.). Oxford: Blackwell. (Original work published 1972.) Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman. Hasegawa, N. (1984). On the so-called zero pronouns in Japanese. The Linguistic Review, 1(1), 182-185. Hendry, J. (1995). Wrapping culture: politeness, presentation, and power in Japan and other societies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.. Labov, W. (1984). Some further steps in narrative analysis. Journal of Narrative and Life History, 7, 395-415.. Labov, W. & Waletzky, J. (1967). Narrative analysis. In J. Helm (Ed.), Essays on the verbal and visual arts, 12-44. Seattle: University of Washington Press.. Lacan, J. (1977). Ecrits: a selection. (A. Sheridan, Trans.). New York: Norton. Lyons, J. (1977). Semantics: volume 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 85.
(22) Kinki University English Journal No.3. Maynard, S. (1993). Discourse modality: subjectivity, emotion and voice in the Japanese language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.. Noels, K. A. (2001). New orientations. III. language learning motivation: towards a. model of intrinsic, extrinsic, and integrative orientations and motivation. In Z. Dornyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition, 43-68. Honolulu: University of Hawaii. Oshima, D. (2003). Out of control: a unified analysis of Japanese passive constructions. In J.-B. Kim & S. Wechsler (Eds.), The Proceedings of the. 9th. International Conference on. HPSG, 245-265.. Palmer, F. R. (1986). Mood and modality. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Schank, R. C. & Abelson, R. P. (1995). Knowledge and memory: the real story. In R. S. Wyer & T. K. Srull (Eds.), Advances in social cognition, 1-85. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Squires, T. (2001). Reading the kowaka-mai as medieval myth: story-patterns, traditional reference and peiformance in late medieval Japan. Unpublished dissertation.. Squires, T. (2007). Using narrative to investigate foreign language learning motivation. Osaka Jogakuin University Journal, 3, 25-46. Squires, T. (2008). A materialist approach to reading learners' narratives (part 1). Kinki University English Journal, 1, 103-118.. Todorov, T. (1968). Introduction to poetics. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Volosinov, V. N. (1973). Marxism and the philosophy of language. (L. Matejka & R. Titunik, Trans.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1929.) Wierzbicka, A. (1988). Semantics of grammar. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.. 86.
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