CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Reading
1. Definition of Reading
In daily life, people cannot be apart from reading activity. Reading is
like a useful tool which is needed by people to help their daily activities.
By reading, people get information that is needed in every time and
everywhere they are. In short, reading can be defined as an activity in
gaining information from written language.
There are many definitions of reading can be stated from experts.
They have different definitions based on their own opinion about how the
process of reading happened to the reader. As Leu and Kinzer (1987: 9)
state that all definitions of reading are personal, it is based on one’s view
of how one reads and how reading ability develops. Although there are
many definition of reading, arriving the meaning is considered as the main
point of reading activity.
According toGoodman in Leu and Kinzer (1987: 9), reading is
perceptive language process. It involves an interaction between thought
and language that help the readers to gain the information of the text. It
means that reading is an active thinking process to lead the reader in
Moreover, Rumelhart in Leu and Kinzer(1987: 9) also states that
reading is the process of understanding written language. He said that it is
a process which is begun by a flutter of patterns on the retina and ends
with the message from the author. It can be said that reading is a matter of
meaning and the development of meaning or comprehension is the
essence of reading.
Referring to Leu and Kinzer (1987: 9), reading is developmental,
interactive and global process involving learned skill. The process
specifically incorporates an individual's linguistic knowledge and can be
both positively and negatively influenced by non linguistic internal and
external variables or factors.
Based on definitions above, reading is viewed as a complex process
that involves various activities in comprehending written language. The
process of reading alsoneeds an active thinking to process the written
language, so the reader can comprehend and understand what have been
read. Therefore, as readers, they have to pay attention more to the process
of reading so they can comprehend and understand the text than just
passively readthe words.
2. The Importance of Reading
Readingis very important language skill because of the advantages
people can obtain.In the article “Reading culture: The long journey to
becoming a developed nation” on Jakarta Post, 15th October 2011.
First, at school, good reading skills lead students to become
successful learners. Most of the time, a student learns from written
language learning materials, such as textbooks, handouts, posters and
online publications.The skill to comprehend written language is very
important in academic life.Reading also encourages people to become
successful lifelong learners, as books can be enjoyed throughout a
lifetime. Second, reading can stimulate someone to be creative and
innovative since the more reading, the more ideas and concepts come to
mind, and the last, reading can promote tolerance and peace because by
reading, people can know other people’s customs, traditions, religions,
beliefs and ethnicity so it will develop people to respect each other.
It can be concluded that reading will support the reader to open their
mind about new things which can improve their knowledge and
competence. For English foreign learners, reading will help them to
improve their competence in learning English because they can actually
practice their competence in English and know how far they can
understand text written in English.
3. The Purpose of Reading
Reading is an activity with a purpose. A person may read in order to
gain information, develop skills, follow directions, or in order to verify
existing knowledge. A person may also read for enjoyment and relaxation,
or to improve knowledge of the language being read (Sahetapy, 2011,
http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2011/10/15/reading-The purpose of reading will guide readers to determine the way they
selectappropriate reading strategies. As cited in
http://www.nclrc.org/essentials/reading/reindex.htm,Byrnes (1998) states
that recognizingthe purpose for reading will help reader determine the
appropriate approach to comprehend it.A person who needs to know
whether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to
comprehend the pricing information provided on the menu, but does not
need to recognize the name of every appetizer listed. A person reading
poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the
ways they are put together, but does not need to identify main idea and
supporting details. However, a person using a scientific article to support
an opinion needs to know the vocabulary that is used, understand the facts
and cause-effect sequences that are presented, and recognize ideas that are
presented as hypotheses and givens.
As a reader, it is important to know the purpose of reading because
it can help readers to focus onthe target of reading activity. It will develop
their reading activity to be effective and efficient so they can get
information which is needed by them as a purpose for their reading
activity.
4. Reading Comprehension
Reading is not only a matter of linguistic recognition, but it is also
about how the reader gets the meaning of the information from written
language. People read for many reasons but understanding is always a part
comprehension in every time readers do reading. Without comprehension,
reading will not provide any information which is needed by the reader
from written language. In short, it can be said that reading is nothing when
comprehension is not there since the essence of reading is comprehension.
According to Leu and Kinzer (1987: 44), reading comprehension is
viewed as a product of the interaction process between text and the reader.
It is not simply something readers get from a text by passing their eyes
over the words. In fact, it needs an active and constructive process to build
meaning from a text.
It can be concluded that comprehension is the important aspect of
reading. It is the act of understanding what readers are reading. If readers
can readthe words but do not understand what they are reading, it can be
said that theyare not really reading.
5. The Major Components of Reading Comprehension
There are important components contribute in the process of
reading comprehension. It is proved by reading instructions that usually
conducted to develop those components in supporting the reader to have a
good comprehension in reading. As Leu and Kinzer (1987: 30-47) state
that decoding knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic knowledge,
discourse knowledge, readiness aspects, and affective aspects have
a. Decoding Knowledge
It refers to the knowledge of readers to determine the oral
equivalent of a written word. Sometimes decoding knowledge is
important for comprehension; other times it is not. Decoding
knowledge is not important for comprehension when determining the
oral equivalent of a word does not help a reader to identify the
meaning, so it will be flexible to use this aspect regarding with the
context of the text.
b. Vocabulary Knowledge
The knowledge about word meaning used in determining the
appropriate meaning for a word in a particular context. As English
foreign learners, it is crucial components since vocabulary knowledge
can be easier their activity in reading English text. Therefore, in
teaching reading, activities in developing vocabulary knowledge
become important part in teaching and learning process.
c. Syntactic Knowledge
Knowledge of sentence syntax, or word order, is also crucial
for the comprehension process. Syntactic knowledge includes
understanding word order rules that exist within sentences and permit
the reader to determine the grammatical function and often the
meaning and pronunciation of words. It has to be wise in developing
this knowledge since readers do not only focus on it. They also have
d. Discourse Knowledge
Discourse knowledge is the knowledge of language
organization at units beyond the single sentence level. It includes
knowledge of the structural organization of different types of writing
which is useful during reading comprehension
e. Readiness Aspects
Reading readiness has also included being ready to read and
understand a particular selection. Prepare students to read a specific
story such as developing background knowledge about the topic of a
selection, learning new vocabulary words, understanding the purpose
for reading the selection, or learning a comprehension skill required to
understand the selection.
f. Affective Aspects
Reading is a language process but it is also an affective
process. Affective aspects of comprehension include a reader’s
attitude and interest in reading.
Based on the components of reading comprehension above, much
of reading instructions always consist of activities designed to develop
these six components which support the reader to be able to comprehend
the text. The development of these components should be designed
carefully in the reading class since they will support students’ reading
so reading activity can be effective without only focused on one
components of reading comprehension above.
6. The Focus of Reading in this Research
It has been stated before that there are some components in reading
that support the process of teaching and learning reading in the classroom.
Based on interview with English teacher and references about activities
that usually take part in the instruction of reading at junior high school,
some specific reading skills below are proposed as aspects of questioners
in this research. By analyzing to the development of these specific reading
skills below, it can be shown how comprehension-based interactive
reading has implemented in junior high school at Banyumas regency.
They are:
a. Oral activity, including reading aloud and pronunciation
b. Vocabulary
c. Text Structure, including grammar, translation, and text genre
d. Readiness aspects
e. Reading speed
f. Summary activity
g. Group work activity
B. TeachingReading
Reading instruction in the classroom is critical factor in teaching
reading.Teaching reading is more than translating the passage in order to
specific skills in reading should also be considered as a part of
instruction.Deschant in Leu and Kinzer (1987: 9) states that reading is more
complex:
“Reading cannot occur unless the pupil can identify and recognize the printed symbol and generally the pupil must also give the visual configuration a name. Even so, it is only one aspect of the reading process. Meaning too, is an absolute exquisite reading. Perhaps too much emphasis in reading instruction has been placed word identification and not enough comprehension”.
Based on the view above, it can be concluded that teaching reading is
not an easy work. There are many considerations in teaching reading that
should be noticed as a way to build a good reader. Those considerations are
related with the major components of reading comprehension that have been
stated before. Decoding knowledge, vocabulary knowledge, syntactic
knowledge, discourse knowledge, readiness aspects, and affective aspects are
agreed as important components which are exist in teaching reading as
instructional activities that support reading lesson.
In fact, there will be no single rule that can define how to teach
reading. It will relate with the different types of learners and their needs
which influence the different aspects of reading that are important in the
design of their reading instructions. The use of appropriate instructions in
teaching reading is vital because it will impact upon students’
learning.Referring to the conclusion of a case study that conducted by
Richards in Nunan (1991: 76), he found that the following principles capture
1. Instructional objectives are used to guide and organize the lessons. (The
teacher formulated and conveyed to learners what the lesson was intended
to accomplish.)
2. The teacher has a comprehensive theory of the nature of reading on a
foreign language, and refers to this in planning his/her teaching.
3. Class-time is used for learning.
4. Instructional activities have a teaching rather than a testing focus. (He
provided opportunities for learners to develop and improve skills and
strategies rather than demonstrating mastery of such skills.)
5. Lessons have a clear structure. (The structure was outlined to students, and
each activity was clearly framed.)
6. A variety of different reading activities are used during each lesson.
(Variation and pacing contributed to positive attitude of students.)
7. Classroom activities give students opportunities to get feedback on their
reading performance. (The teacher provided information on the kinds of
strategies they were using for different tasks, and on the effectiveness of
these strategies.)
8. Instructional activities relate to real-world reading purposes.
9. Instruction is learner focused. (Learners were encouraged to try and work
things out for themselves.)
From those principles, it can be concluded that effective teaching is
seen as interactive process which really support students to learn. In this
a good competence in reading since the standard of learning achievement is
seen from the performance of students in reading. By understanding it, it is
very useful to consider those nine principles of effective teaching as guidance
for teacher in designing teaching reading strategy.
C. Comprehension-Based
More important thing that should be considered in designing teaching
strategy is comprehension aspect. The essence of comprehension here does
not mean to only memorize the subject matter, but deeply comprehend the
term for a long time, so learners can apply it in everyday life.
Bloom’s taxonomy defines comprehension as the ability to grasp the
meaning of material (http://www.corrosiondoctors.org/Training/Bloom.htm).
This may be shown by translating material from one form to another (words
to numbers), by interpreting material (explaining or summarizing), and by
estimating future trends (predicting consequences or effects). These learning
outcomes go one step beyond the simple remembering of material, and
represent the lowest level of understanding. Examples of learning objectives
at this level are: classifies; cites; converts; describes; discusses; estimates;
explains; generalizes; gives examples; makes sense out of; paraphrases;
restates (in own words); summarizes; traces; understands.
Designing instructions by considering comprehension aspect will
avoid spoon-feed activities in teaching and learning process. Teaching and
D. Interactive Reading
1. Definition of Interactive Reading
Difficulties are often happened when teacher conducts teaching
reading for English learners.These difficulties sometimes influence the
way teacher present reading lesson to be more stressful and bored for
students.It leads the teacher to present reading lesson in the traditional way
by providing conventional teaching that may lack the enthusiasm of a
conversation class. As a teacher, providing their instructions to be more
fun and alive in the classroom is a challenge in presenting reading class.
Teacher has to transform a reading class into an interactive environment
that facilitates learning.
Actually, interactive teaching is the term given to a strategy of
teaching developed through research undertaken as part of the Learning in
Science Project (LISP) at Waikato University in the 80s. The concept of
interactive teaching is focused on the interaction of teacher to interact and
challenge students to be active in developing them to be independent
learners. It will support students to be motivated in joining teaching and
learning process and influence the learning outcomes of the students.
Interactive teaching helps students engage with the process of teaching and
learning since they can fully involve and do the activity presented by the
teacher in the class (http://www.leadinglearning.co.nzqualitylearning
This concept of interactive teaching is adapted to the teaching
reading as interactive reading. It is a way to teach reading interactively and
motivate students to follow reading instructions and provide them with
opportunities to develop their reading skill. Students will do more than just
read and be passive to the reading instruction of the teacher, but they will
also write, discuss or get engaged in solving problems which enable them
to analyze, synthesize, and evaluate the instructions of the teacher.
2. Characteristics of Interactive Reading
The key point of interactive reading is in interaction. Interaction is
the basic method of modern teaching brings teacher, students, and the
learningcontent into positive atmosphere of teaching and learning process.
Without this interaction, the teaching and learning reading will be
meaningless. The interaction between teachers and students is shown in
the form of teaching organizations, classroom presentations, question
asking, class comments, and classroom exercises. It is presented as a case
study, scenario teaching, group discussion, brainstorming, sand table
exercises, simulation training, video-on-demand, etc.
Teaching has its law. Interaction has no set-style. Teaching
strategies are decided base on the needs of the students. Sometimes it is an
interactive questioning between a teacher and an individual student,
discussion among teacher and a group of students, or brainstorming
exchange of thought, emotion and information, thus to achieve the best
learning effects. The important thing is to bear in mind that the teaching
reading objective is to ensure students know how to read by transforming
the traditional passive reading to active reading in a wayto acquire
knowledge from a one-way to two-way, to study from spoon-feeding to a
research study(Shao’an and Li accessed on
www.seiofbluemountain.com/.../detail.php?id...).
E. The Practicalof Comprehension-Based Interactive Reading on Specific Reading Skills
The practical below presents some ways to conduct
comprehension-based interactive readingon specific reading skills that usually take part in
reading class. It is cited from “Teaching Reading on International Academy
of Education” (http://www.curtin.edu.au/curtin/dept/smec/iae).
1. Teacher can provide opportunities for children to develop their oral
language through story-telling and show-and-tell activities.
2. During read aloud, shared reading and guided reading explicitly teach
how to predict the meaning of a word and look for clues to help figure
out the meaning.
3. Read aloud texts with interesting words and then use the words in
retellings or use pictures or drama to retell using the words.
4. Model pronunciation of difficult words by using comprehension
strategies and phonics rules. When it comes to a word that may be
clues to figure out the meaning of the word, which sometimes helps them
to pronounce it. Then demonstrate decoding skills like breaking a word
down into parts then blending the parts together to sound out the word.
5. Make the read aloud interactive by asking thought-provoking questions.
This can be done during and after the reading. An effective method is to
pair students so they can learn to share responses with each other. This
also teaches them to express their opinions about what they read. Ask
questions that require more than recall of facts. Get them to speculate on
the characters' motives and compare them to their own prior experiences.
6. Vocabulary learning should involve active engagement in tasks, e.g.
learning new vocabulary by doing a class project.
7. Multiple methods, not dependence on a single method, will result in
better vocabulary learning.
8. Encourage students to develop strategies for inferring the meaning of
new words from the context in which they occur, and teaching them to
use a range of cues, both verbal n non verbal to determine
meaning(Nunan, 1991:121).
9. Construct definitions together in many ways, such as using antonyms and
synonyms, using example sentences, comparing and contrasting words,
and creating frames based on what the object is and what features it has
10.Discussing new words and concepts with students beforereading a text is
generally helpful. It helps to activate priorknowledge and improve
comprehension.
11.Asking students to tell everything they know about a topicis a useful way
to begin to get students to activate their priorknowledge. They should
then begin to think about whatthey don’t know. After reading, they
