ABSTRACT
Ratnasari, Dinar, 2015.A Communication Practice Model for Vocational
High School, Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
In Indonesia, as an ASEAN member country, the use of English for communication is essential to accommodate AFTA (Asean Free Trade Area) in 2015. For students of vocational high school, communication is important since they are prepared to work. This research aims to develop a communication practice model which adopts the Fluency Development strand of language course by Nation (2007:1) and employs Communicative Language Teaching and Contextual Teaching Learning.
The Communication Practice Model is expected to enable students of vocational high school to communicate using English by practicing so they can interact with others. By using the Communication Practice Model, students are expected to get used to communicate using English. This research aims to answer
a research question, which is What is the iconic model of the Communication
Practice for the Vocational High Schools like? The goals of this research are to present the concept of the iconic model and to create the iconic model of the Communication Practice. Therefore, this research would present the iconic model of Communication Practice theoretically and empirically.
The Comunication Practice Model uses ADDIE’s steps to develop which
refer to analyze, design, develop, implement and evaluate (Danks, 2011) and comprises R & D method. The need analysis data were gained from three English teachers and forty students of a vocational high school. The expert validations were from a lecturer and three English teachers of vocational high school. The data for the practice of the iconic model was from forty students of a vocational high school. The instruments for data gathering were a questionnaire and interview.
The participants gave positive responses on the Communication Practice Model. Theoretically, the concept of the iconic model employed the Fluency Development, the Communicative Language Teaching and the Contextual Teaching Learning and it was expected to help students practice communicating. The Communication Practice Model consisted of three mains activities which
were Let’s Keep in Touch, Let’s Be Open-Minded, and Let’s Practice.
Empirically, the result of expert’s validation showed score which was 4.10. It indicated that the design was very good and did not need revision. Besides, students also gave positive responses on the practice of the iconic model of the Communication Practice Model because the score of data analysis indicated very good or very high which was 4.39.
ABSTRAK
Ratnasari, Dinar, 2015. Model Latihan Berkomuniasi untuk Sekolah Menegah
Kejuruan, Yogyakarta: Program Pascasarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Di Indonesia, sebagai anggota ASEAN, penggunaan bahasa Inggris sangat penting untuk menghadapi AFTA (Asean Free Trade Area) atau Perdagangan Bebas pada tahun 2015. Untuk siswa Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan, komunikasi sangatlah penting karena siswa SMK dipersiapkan untuk terjun dalam dunia kerja. Sehingga, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan latihan
berkomunikasi yang mengadopsiteori Fluency Development (Nation, 2007),
Communicative Language Teaching dan Contextual Teaching Learning.
Model Latihan Berkomunikasidiharapkan mampu membantu siswa SMK untuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Inggris dengan latihan, sehingga merekadapat berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Dengan latihan berkomunikasi, siswa diharapkan menjadi terbiasa untuk berkomunikasi. Penelitian ini akan menjawab satu
rumusan masalah, yakni, Seperti apakah model ikonik dari Model Latihan
Berkomunikasi untuk siswa SMK? Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menunjukan
konsep dari model ikonik dan menciptakan model ikonik dari latihan berkomunikasi. Jadi, penelitian ini akan menunjukan model ikonik dari Latihan Berkomunikasi secara teori dan empirik.
Model Latihan Berkomunikasi ini menggunakan langkah-langkah dari ADDIE yaitu analisa, perancangan, pengembangan, penerapan, dan evaluasi (Danks, 2011) dan menggunakan metode R & D. Data untuk analisis kebutuhan diperoleh dari tiga orang guru bahasaInggris SMK dan empat puluh siswa SMK. Data validasi ahli didapat dar itiga orang guru bahasaInggris SMK dan satu orang dosen bahasa Inggris.Data untuk praktik model ikonik didapat dari empat puluh siswa SMK. Instrument penelitian berupa kuesioner dan wawancara.
Para partisipan penelitian memberikan tanggapan yang positif. Secara
teori, konsep dari model ikonik menggunakan Fluency Development,
Communicative Language Teaching serta Contextual Teaching Learning dan
diharapkan model ini mampu membantu siswa berkomunikasi. Latihan
berkomunikasi ini terdiri dari tiga sesi yakni Let’s Keep in Touch, Let’s Be Open
-Minded, dan Let’s Practice. Secara empirik, hasil dari validasi ahli menunjukan skor 4.10. Ini berarti bahwa rancangan ini sangat bagus dan tidak perlu revisi. Selain itu, siswa juga memberikan tanggapan positif terhadap praktik dari model ikonik karena skor yang didapat mengindikasikan sangat baik atau sangat tinggiyakni 4.39.
A COMMUNICATION PRACTICE MODEL FOR VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Magister Humaniora (M.Hum.) Degree
in English Language Studies
by
Dinar Ratnasari 126332010
THE GRADUATE PROGRAM OF ENGLISH STUDIES SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It will be the greatest opportunity to express my appreciations to all
people who have helped and supported me to finish my duty. First and foremost,
my deepest gratitude is addressed to Jesus Christ, who never leaves me alone.
The greatest appreciation belongs to Dr. J. Bismoko., who always spent his
precious time to give me feedback, solution, advice, and motivation during the
completion of my thesis.
Besides, I would like to address my gratitude to F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D.
and to Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko, M.A. for giving me suggestions in my thesis
review and thesis defense. I would thank Dr. Fr.B. Alip, M.Pd., M.A. for his
suggestions in my thesis defense. My appreciations also go to all KBI lecturers
who had taught and educated me.
I am indebted to Drs. Simon Suharyanta, M.Pd., the principal of SMK
Putratama, who had permitted me to conduct my research. I would also like to
address my thanks to Agnes Heni Triyuliana, S.Pd., Maria Saptiyudanti, S.Pd.,
and MM. Mawarti Rahajeng, S.Pd., the English teachers in SMK Putratama, who had facilitated and participated in my research. My sincerest thanks go to my
best friend, Mega Wulandari, S.Pd., M.Hum. for always helping and advising
me during the completion of my thesis. Then, I would like to express my thanks
to all my students of 2014/2015 academic years in XAK class, XPM class, XBC
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL PAGE………...ii
DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE……….iii
STATEMENT OF WORK ORIGINALITY………...iv
LEMBAR PERNYATAANPERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKADEMIS...v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS………..viii
LIST OF TABLES………... ..xi
LIST OF FIGURES………...xii
LIST OF APPENDICES………...xiii
ABSTRACT………..xiv
ABSTRAK……….xv
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION A.RESEARCH BACKGROUND………...1
B.PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION……….3
C.PROBLEM LIMITATION………..4
D.STATEMENT OF RESEARCH QUESTION………...6
E. GOALS OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT………6
F. PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS……….6
G.RESEARCH BENEFITS……….8
CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A.THEORETICAL REVIEW………...10
1. Communication……….10
a. The Nature of Communication……….11
b.The Process of Communication………13
c. Communication Strategies………...15
2. Practice……….16
3. Four Strands of Language Course………18
a. The Four Strands by Nation………19
b. Fluency Development Strand………...23
4. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)……….25
a. The Nature of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)……….26
b.Fluency Activities in CLT………26
c. Mechanical, Meaningful, and Communicative Practice………...27
5. Speaking ………..28
a. The Nature of Speaking………...28
b. Speaking Activities………..30
6. Contextual Teaching Learning (CTL)………..32
7. Vocational High School………35
8. Adolescent Learners……….36
b.Adolescent Learning……….37
9. Communication Practice Model………...39
10. Instructional Design………...41
a. Analyzing……….42
1. The Concept of the Iconic Model……….54
2. The Practice of the Iconic Model………...55
B.RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS………...57
1. Participants of the Concept of the Iconic Model………..57
2. Participants of the Practice of the Iconic Model………...57
C.RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS……….58
1. Instrument for the Concept of the Iconic Model………..58
2. Instrument for the Practice of the Iconic Model………...60
D.DATA GATHERING TECHNIQUES……….64
1. Data Gathering Technique for the Concept of the Iconic Model…………64
2. Data Gathering Technique for the Practice of the Iconic Model ………….64
E. DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE………...65
1. Data Analysis for the Concept of the Iconic Model……….65
2. Data Analysis for the Practice of the Iconic Model………..66
F. RESEARCH PROCEDURES………...70
1. Research Procedures for the Concept of the Iconic Model………..70
2. Research Procedures for the Practice of the Iconic Model………...71
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS A.THERESULTS OF THE CONCEPT OF THE ICONIC MODEL………….75
1. Research and Information Collecting………...75
a. Need Analysis Data from English Teachers………...76
b. Need Analysis Data from Students………..85
2. Determining Topics, Goals, General Purposes and Learning Objectives....95
B.THE RESULTS OF THE PRACTICE OF THE ICONIC MODEL………...100
1. Developing a Form of Product………...100
a. Let’s Keep in Touch………...104
b. Let’s Be Open-Minded………..106
c. Let’s Practice……….108
2. Preliminary Field of Testing………...110
3. Implementing and Evaluating Communication Practice Model…………117
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
A.CONCLUSIONS………...131
B.SUGGESTIONS………...134
1. Suggestions for Readers and Future Researchers ………..135
2. Suggestions for English Teachers………..135
3. Suggestions for Students……….137
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1Summary of logical iconic model………...52
Table 3.1 Summary of questionnaire blueprint of need analysis for teachers and students………59
Table 3.2 Summary of questionnaire blueprint of experts’ validation…………...61
Table 3.3 Summary of questionnaire blueprint of the practice of the communication practice model………...62
Table 3.4 Summary of interview blueprint………63
Table 3.5 Score and criteria of the likert scale (Best, 2006)……….66
Table 3.6 Meaning of score criteria………...68
Table 3.7 Interpretation of the degree agreement………..68
Table 3.8 Meaning of score criteria for the practice of the iconic model………..70
Table 4.1 Teachers’ responses for item 1-8………...78
Table 4.2 Teachers’ responses for item 9-16……….79
Table 4.3 Teachers’ responses for item 17-32………...80
Table 4.4 Teachers’ responses for item 33-50………...82
Table 4.5 Students’ responses for item 1-8………....87
Table 4.6 Students’ responses for item 9-16………..88
Table 4.7 Students’ responses for item 17-32………90
Table 4.8 Students’ responses for item 33-50………93
Table 4.9 Goal and general purposes……….98
Table 4.10 Learning objectives………..99
Table 4.11 Participants of experts’ validation………..111
Table 4.12 Interpretation of the degree of argument for experts’ validation…...111
Table 4.13 Experts’ validation result………...112
Table 4.14 Implementation schedule………...117
Table 4.15 Meaning of score criteria………...118
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 Product specifications……….7
Figure 2.1 Process of communication (Yatim, Hamid, Rahim, and Thian, 2009: 2)………13
Figure 2.2 Summary of four strands (Nation, 2007)………...22
Figure 2.3 Repetition as speaking process……….30
Figure 2.4 Conditions that support adolescent learning (Beamon, 2001: 6)…….38
Figure 2.5 ADDIE’s steps (Choi, 2014)……….41
Figure 2.6 Concept of the iconic model………...51
Figure 3.1 Mean criteria formula (Sudijono, 2011)………...67
Figure 3.2 Summary of research procedures………...74
Figure 4.1 Let’s keep in touch………..105
Figure 4.2 Let’s be open-minded……….107
Figure 4.3 Let’s practice………..108
Figure 4.4 Comunication practice test……….109
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 Letters
Appendix 1A Permission Letter for the Principal of SMK Putratama...144
Appendix 1B Permission Statement Letter from the Principal Of SMK Putratama………..145
Appendix 2 Blueprints Appendix 2A Questionnaire Blueprint of Need Analysis for Teachers……..147
Appendix 2B Questionnaire Blueprint of Need Analysis for Students……...151
Appendix 2C Questionnaire Blueprint of Experts’ Validation………...157
Appendix 2D Questionnaire Blueprint of the practice of Communication Practice Model………..160
Appendix 2E Interview Blueprint………...163
Appendix 2F Interview Guideline………...165
Appendix 3 Results Appendix 3A Questionnaire Results of Need Analysis from Teachers……..167
Appendix 3B Questionnaire Results of Need Analysis from Students……...170
Appendix 3C Questionnaire Results of Experts’ Validation………...176
Appendix 3D Questionnaire Results of the Practice of Communication Practice Model………..178
Appendix 3E Interview Results………...183
Appendix 4 Samples Appendix 4A The Sample of Questionnaire Results of Need Analysis from Teacher………...188
Appendix 4B The Sample of Questionnaire Results of Need Analysis from Student………... 193
Appendix 4C The Sample of Questionnaire Results of Experts’ Validation..198
Appendix 4D The Sample of Questionnaire Results of the Practice of the Iconic Model………...202
Appendix 4E The Sample of Interview Results………..205
Appendix 5 Syllabus of Curriculum 2006………...208
ABSTRACT
Ratnasari, Dinar, 2015.A Communication Practice Model for Vocational
High School, Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.
In Indonesia, as an ASEAN member country, the use of English for communication is essential to accommodate AFTA (Asean Free Trade Area) in 2015. For students of vocational high school, communication is important since they are prepared to work. This research aims to develop a communication practice model which adopts the Fluency Development strand of language course by Nation (2007:1) and employs Communicative Language Teaching and Contextual Teaching Learning.
The Communication Practice Model is expected to enable students of vocational high school to communicate using English by practicing so they can interact with others. By using the Communication Practice Model, students are expected to get used to communicate using English. This research aims to answer
a research question, which is What is the iconic model of the Communication
Practice for the Vocational High Schools like? The goals of this research are to present the concept of the iconic model and to create the iconic model of the Communication Practice. Therefore, this research would present the iconic model of Communication Practice theoretically and empirically.
The Comunication Practice Model uses ADDIE’s steps to develop which
refer to analyze, design, develop, implement and evaluate (Danks, 2011) and comprises R & D method. The need analysis data were gained from three English teachers and forty students of a vocational high school. The expert validations were from a lecturer and three English teachers of vocational high school. The data for the practice of the iconic model was from forty students of a vocational high school. The instruments for data gathering were a questionnaire and interview.
The participants gave positive responses on the Communication Practice Model. Theoretically, the concept of the iconic model employed the Fluency Development, the Communicative Language Teaching and the Contextual Teaching Learning and it was expected to help students practice communicating. The Communication Practice Model consisted of three mains activities which
were Let’s Keep in Touch, Let’s Be Open-Minded, and Let’s Practice.
Empirically, the result of expert’s validation showed score which was 4.10. It indicated that the design was very good and did not need revision. Besides, students also gave positive responses on the practice of the iconic model of the Communication Practice Model because the score of data analysis indicated very good or very high which was 4.39.
ABSTRAK
Ratnasari, Dinar, 2015. Model Latihan Berkomuniasi untuk Sekolah Menegah
Kejuruan, Yogyakarta: Program Pascasarjana Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Di Indonesia, sebagai anggota ASEAN, penggunaan bahasa Inggris sangat penting untuk menghadapi AFTA (Asean Free Trade Area) atau Perdagangan Bebas pada tahun 2015. Untuk siswa Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan, komunikasi sangatlah penting karena siswa SMK dipersiapkan untuk terjun dalam dunia kerja. Sehingga, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mengembangkan latihan
berkomunikasi yang mengadopsiteori Fluency Development (Nation, 2007),
Communicative Language Teaching dan Contextual Teaching Learning.
Model Latihan Berkomunikasidiharapkan mampu membantu siswa SMK untuk berkomunikasi dalam bahasa Inggris dengan latihan, sehingga merekadapat berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Dengan latihan berkomunikasi, siswa diharapkan menjadi terbiasa untuk berkomunikasi. Penelitian ini akan menjawab satu
rumusan masalah, yakni, Seperti apakah model ikonik dari Model Latihan
Berkomunikasi untuk siswa SMK? Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk menunjukan
konsep dari model ikonik dan menciptakan model ikonik dari latihan berkomunikasi. Jadi, penelitian ini akan menunjukan model ikonik dari Latihan Berkomunikasi secara teori dan empirik.
Model Latihan Berkomunikasi ini menggunakan langkah-langkah dari ADDIE yaitu analisa, perancangan, pengembangan, penerapan, dan evaluasi (Danks, 2011) dan menggunakan metode R & D. Data untuk analisis kebutuhan diperoleh dari tiga orang guru bahasaInggris SMK dan empat puluh siswa SMK. Data validasi ahli didapat dar itiga orang guru bahasaInggris SMK dan satu orang dosen bahasa Inggris.Data untuk praktik model ikonik didapat dari empat puluh siswa SMK. Instrument penelitian berupa kuesioner dan wawancara.
Para partisipan penelitian memberikan tanggapan yang positif. Secara
teori, konsep dari model ikonik menggunakan Fluency Development,
Communicative Language Teaching serta Contextual Teaching Learning dan
diharapkan model ini mampu membantu siswa berkomunikasi. Latihan
berkomunikasi ini terdiri dari tiga sesi yakni Let’s Keep in Touch, Let’s Be Open
-Minded, dan Let’s Practice. Secara empirik, hasil dari validasi ahli menunjukan skor 4.10. Ini berarti bahwa rancangan ini sangat bagus dan tidak perlu revisi. Selain itu, siswa juga memberikan tanggapan positif terhadap praktik dari model ikonik karena skor yang didapat mengindikasikan sangat baik atau sangat tinggiyakni 4.39.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This research aims to produce a Communication Practice Model for the
Vocational High Schools. The model is indented for students of the vocational
high schools. This chapter is to ensure the validity and feasibility of the research
project. To elaborate, there are several parts which are being discussed. They are
research background, problem identification, problem limitation, research
questions, research goals and objectives, and research benefits.
A.RESEARCH BACKGROUND
English in the Vocational high schools prepares students to work.
Marsigit (2008:2) says, “Vocational education, sometimes called Career and
Technical Education (CTE) has its aim to prepare learners for careers that are
based in manual or practical activities, occupation or vocation, hence the term, in
which the learner participates.” English in the vocational high schools helps
students in their future working. Using English, students are expected to be able to
interact with other people. Thus, it can be said that English in the vocational high
schools is for preparing students to work.
Besides, in improving life quality, people should develop themselves.
Indonesia should be ready to face AFTA (Asean Free Trade Area) and AFLA
(Asean Free Labour Area) in 2015 and should prepare for the changing (Mulyasa,
and knowing that fact, the ability to communicate internationally is necessary.
English as international language should be a bridge in facing AFTA and AFLA.
Thus, Indonesian people should be able to use English to interact with others.
Further, speaking competence is important. According to the Directorate
General Policy of the Higher Education, Educational and Cultural Ministry in
2011, speaking competence is required in order to communicate in global world
because competency is important based on Indonesian National Qualification
Framework or Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia or KKNI
(www.kopertis3.or.id). When speaking competence increases, it may improve life
quality because English as a Foreign Language in Indonesia may be used in
communicating. Besides, it may promote equity since English as a Foreign
Language in Indonesia can be used for communicating like in English as Second
Language’s countries. Therefore, students should be able to use English in
communicating.
In addition, students of the vocational high schools tend to be people who
should be prepared for AFTA and AFLA since they are taught to be ready for
working. They should be able to communicate in order to cooperate or compete
with others. Thus, improving their speaking in order to be able to communicate is
required. Being able to communicate tends to be fluent in transferring meaning.
Besides, Richards (2006: 14) says that the goal of Communicative Language
Teaching is to build up the fluency. Students should be able to transfer meaning
Therefore, this research aims to produce the Communication Practice
Model which focuses on promoting students to practice speaking in order to help
students communicate. Thus, the Communication Practice Model involves
Fluency Development strand by Nation (2007) so that communication in English
can be engaged. Coxhead (2010:4) says, “Three meaning-focused strands called
meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output, and fluency focus on the
communication of meaning.” Besides, since the Communication Practice Model
also employs Communicative Language Teaching and Contextual Teaching
Learning, fluency strands by Nation is used. As a result, the Fluency Development
strand can be appropriate to help students communicate using English. This
research provides a Communication Practice Model as a module for practicing
communication. Students are expected to practice their speaking so that they can
communicate by using English. The Communication Practice Model expects
students to be able to communicate internationally in the future.
B.PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Communication is essential in people lives. Littlejohn and Foss (2008:2)
say, “Communication is one of those everyday activities that is intertwined with
all of human life.” Communication exists in the daily life context. However, in
connecting to global world, communication in English is important. English as an
Language is needed for communication. Thus, learning language will
help in communicating. English language institutions may facilitate in developing
communication. English should be practiced and taught to enable students in
interacting and facing the global world. By learning English, interaction and
communication with other people in the world can be achieved. Thus, practicing
communication in English can give opportunity for students to develop
themselves in global world.
Particularly, students of the vocational high schools should have ability
to cooperate to other people. Students of the Vocational high schools are prepared
to work when they graduate. They should be able to communicate especially in
English so that they can work together. “Communicating fluently in English
allows you to connect to people” (www.kucampus.kaplan.edu). Thus, English is
important subject for them. Therefore, this research provides Communication
Practice Model which uses Fluency Development strands, Communicative
Language Teaching and Contextual Teaching Learning to promote students to
practice speaking so that they have ability to communicate in English. Besides,
the Communication Practice Model allows students to practice in order to help
students common to communicate.
C.PROBLEM LIMITATION
In constraining this research, some points are being the focus of this
development of the communication practice. Since students of the vocational high
schools are prepared for working, being able to communicate is required. Besides,
in global world, they should be able to interact and compete with other so this
research tends to focus on productive skill which is speaking. Here, students are
expected to practice communicating so that they will be familiar to communicate.
Secondly, it focuses on the communication practice model, combined with the
materials which are related to vocational high schools grade ten. Thirdly, this
model involves the Fluency Development strand of language course strands by
Nation (2007: 1), the Communicative Language Teaching and the Contextual
Teaching Learning. The Fluency Development strand will be the focus of the
Communication Practice Model since the model will be concerned with reading,
listening, writing and speaking.
Fourthly, the Communication Practice Model will be a module or book
for practicing to communicate or speak. This module will be used by teacher and
students. Lastly, this product is for tenth grade students of the vocational high
schools of all of programs. The reason is that students of all programs can use the
Communication Practice Model so not only students of a certain program who can
use this model. Further explanation about participants will be on Chapter III.
In conclusion, the Communication Practice Model utilizes Fluency
Development strand that focuses on reading, listening, writing, and speaking.
Thus, the activities in the model involve those four English skills. However, this
model gives more attention in practicing to speak. This model adapts activities
Learning. The materials are also related to syllabus of the vocational high schools
for tenth grade so the model can be suitable for students of grade ten. Therefore,
Communication Practice Model helps students practice communicating.
D.STATEMENT OF RESEARCH QUESTION
This part provides the research question of the study. The research
question is:
What is the iconic model of the Communication Practice for the
Vocational High Schools like?
E.GOALS OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
The goals of the research include two main points. The goals of the
research are:
1. To present the concept of the iconic model that is going to be implemented in
English classroom to guide students to be able to communicate.
2. To create the iconic model of the Communication Practice this is going to be
applied to the students in the classroom.
F. PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS
This research aims to design the Communication Practice Model for the
enable students of the vocational high schools to communicate using English so
they can cooperate and connect to others. Thus, the Communication Practice
Model accommodates students to practice. The Communication Practice Model
will be presented as a book for the teacher and students to practice their speaking
so that students are expected to be able to communicate using English. It consists
of fifteen chapters that provide activities and exercises for students to practice.
This model is related to the Fluency Development strand of language course by
Nation (2007) because Fluency-focused involves four skills of English which are
speaking, listening, reading and writing. Besides, this model applies the
Communicative Language Teaching and the Contextual Teaching Learning. In
this section, students practice their skill to communicate. The product
specifications are:
Name : Communication Practice Model for the Vocational High Schools
User : The Students of Grade Ten of Vocational High School
Purpose : Improving students’ ability to communicate using English
Materials : Speaking
Product Type : Module
Chapter : 15 Units
Time : One unit for one meeting
G.RESEARCH BENEFITS
This research is expected to bring about benefits for readers and future
researchers, teachers, and also students. It is also expected to be helpful for people
needing it. Thus, this part provides explanation about research benefits. This
research has benefits scientifically and practically for English Language Studies.
1. Scientific Benefits for Readers and Future researchers
Scientifically, this research brings about benefits for readers and future
researchers. This research provides effective model to improve learning
efficiency. Besides, it provides information and knowledge in language education
for improving speaking for the sake of communicating so it can help readers or
future researchers as a reference. It may function as comprehensible contribution
for English education development in the vocational high schools. This research
brings benefit in presenting scientific information related to language learning,
especially, related to communication practice. Therefore, readers and future
researchers can use this research to find out scientific information which they
need.
2. Practical Benefits for English Teachers and Students
Practically, this research aims to develop the effective model so it
produces empirical model of the communication practice. Thus, this research
brings benefit for English teachers as a reference to train students to communicate.
encourages students to practice in order to make them common in communicating.
Here, students are expected to be able to communicate in order to interact and
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter presents theories which support this research to discover the
concept truth. This chapter consists of three parts. They are theoretical review,
related studies and theoretical framework. The theoretical review is used as the
relevant theory for the research itself. The related studies part is provided to
support theoretical review with up-to-date report. In addition, the theoretical
framework is used to provide clarity of research procedure.
A.THEORETICAL REVIEW
Theoretical review discusses ten theories. Theoretical review includes the
theories of Communication, Practice, Four Stands of Language Course,
Communicative Language Teaching, Speaking, Contextual Teaching Learning,
Vocational High School, Adolescents Learners, Communication Practice Model,
and Instructional Design Model.
1. Communication
Language is important in people lives. “Language can be used to
communicate feelings and emotions” (Aitchison, 2003: 23). People use a language
as a media to transfer feeling and information. Using language, people can
people who do not share the same first or even second language” (Harmer, 2007:
13). Thus, it is clear that communication needs language as a media.
In addition, English language can be used for communication
internationally. Harmer (2007, 13) assumes that “English is used as a second or
third language and as the international communication.” Knowing that fact,
learning language for communication is necessary. Learning English language
helps people acquire language so people can communicate fluently.
Therefore, this research also involves theories of communication since
communication is the meeting point of this research. Being able to communicate
in English is the purpose. This part consists of three main discussions. This part
discusses the nature of communication, the process of communication and
communication strategies.
a. The Nature of Communication
Communication in this research tends to be the students’ ability to
communicate through speaking and interacting with other using English.
However, knowing the definition of communication is needed. Ruesch as cited in
Littlejohn and Foss (2008: 3) says, “Communication is the process that links
discontinuous parts of the living world to one another.” Thus, communication
relates a person to other. According to Robbins (2001: 284), “Communication
refers to transference and the understanding of meaning.” Finally, communication
can be explained as a process to connect to others which includes transferring and
Communication has some functions. Robbins (2001) classifies four
functions of communication. The functions of communication based on Robbins
(2001: 284-285) are divided into four main functions. Firstly, as a control,
communication performs to control people manners, actions and behavior. By
communication, people can behave properly and take a good action in their life.
Communication organizes and manages people to be civilized and educated.
Secondly, as motivation, communication functions in encouraging people to
improve their performance. Suggestion and support which stimulate motivation
need communication. Communication is used to encourage and persuade people
to have high motivation in their life so people can know their purpose and want in
their life. Thus, people can be motivated to reach what they need and want.
Thirdly, as emotional expression, communication can be used to show or express
feeling. People can show whether they are exited, depressed or annoyed. People
should express their feeling to release their problem or burden. By
communicating, people can show their emotion so communication is useful in
expressing feeling. Lastly, Robbins (2001: 285) says, “Communication provides
information that people need to make decision by transmitting the data to identify
and evaluate alternative choices.” Thus, the last fourth function is as information.
It is really clear that communication provides people all information that they
need. People cannot get information if there is no communication to transfer the
information. Communication tends to be a way to transfer message so people can
Therefore, communication is very important since it brings many benefits
for people. People cannot be separated from communication because
communication occurs in their life. Communication allows people to interact and
cooperate. Knowing the functions of communication, this research points out a
focus which is Communication Practice Model to enable students and use English
in communicating.
b. The Process of Communication
Communication works through some steps. Based on www.oum.edu,
communication involves sender, message, receiver and feedback. The sender is a
person who is speaking then message will be transferring to the receiver so the
receiver can send response. The process of communication can be described
through the picture as follows.
Figure 2.1 Process of communication (Yatim, Hamid, Rahim, and Thian, 2009: 2)
Figure 2.1 describes the process of communication. A first sender will
transfer a message to a receiver. The receiver will interpret the message and he or
feedback to the first sender. When the receiver gives feedback to the first sender,
he or she becomes a sender. Finally, the feedback is received by the first sender
who now is the receiver.
Besides, communication process has major elements. Those elements
influence the communication process. There are seven major elements of
communication process based on Robbins (2001, 285-286) which are sender,
encoding, message, channel, decoding, receiver, and feedback. Firstly, sender
sends message and refers to communication source (Robbins, 2001: 285-286).
Secondly, encoding means transferring message to symbolic form (Robbins,
2001: 285-286). Thirdly, message is the real physical result of encoding (Robbins,
2001: 285-286). Fourthly, channel is a way or media to deliver message, such as
face to face, telephone, etc (Robbins, 2001: 285-286). Fifty, decoding means to
interpret message into a form that can be understood by receiver (Robbins, 2001:
285-286). However, knowledge, skill, background can influence the ability of
receiver to decode message. Sixthly, receiver reconstructs and receives message
(Robbins, 2001: 285-286). Lastly, feedback refers to whether understanding can
be achieved (Robbins, 2001: 285-286).
Simply, it can be concluded that in communication a sender and a
receiver have significant role. Communication may occur when a message can be
transferred and received. A message is interpreted by a receiver and a feedback is
to express that the message is understood. By communication, people can
c. Communication Strategies
In communication, there are some strategies about how to communicate
in order to facilitate people to transfer their message or information. According to
Dörnyei and Scott’s (1997) as cited in Ellis (2012), there are three general types of
communication strategies. Dörnyei and Scott’s (1997) as cited in Ellis (2012: 508)
identify communication strategies as direct strategies that include conflict
resolution and achieving shared understanding, interactional strategies that
consider the negotiation of for meaning and deal with preventing breakdowns and
keeping the communication open, and indirect strategies that include the
communication management but without the real use of the second language, for
example, using fillers to reduce pressure on processing.
In addition, there are also other communication strategies. Brown (1994:
119-121) classifies communication strategies as four broad strategies. The first
strategy is avoidance. It refers to syntactic and lexical avoidance. Pretending not
listen to someone speaking may happen in this strategy. The second strategy is
prefabricated pattern. It tends to memorize certain sentences without internalized
knowledge of the components of the phrase. The third strategy is appeal to
authority. It refers to ask directly to native speaker or use bilingual dictionary. The
fourth strategy is language switch. It refers to use their native language whether
the hearer knows or not.
As a result, using communication strategies, people are expected to
saying, he can use avoidance by Brown which means pretending not listen so
another person can repeat the saying and he has an opportunity to listen to the
saying again to get the meaning.
In conclusion, theory of communication is necessary as a basic theory to
develop Communication Practice Model. Communication has four functions
which are as a control, motivation, emotional expression and information
(Robbins, 2001: 284-285). Consequently, this research focuses on
communication. Besides, the theory of communication process and
communication strategies can be helpful in designing Communication Practice
Model. By knowing communication process, communication problems may be
identified. In addition, communication strategies can be helpful to find a way to
express message properly. Therefore, theory of communication is important for
designing and developing Communication Practice Model.
2. Practice
In this research, practice is needed to train students to communicate.
Communication Practice Model provides students with practices so that students
can train themselves to communicate. Practicing should be routine so students can
be able to communicate. However, practice is related to behaviorism theory.
Mitchell and Myles (2004: 30) describe that “in behaviorists’ analysis, language
learning is learning as the formation of habits that considers response, stimulus
behaviourism learning by practicing tends to be imitating and repeating.
However, in this research, practicing means a training to help students accustomed
to communicating.
In addition, behaviourism which is related to habit is needed for students
of the vocational high schools. Doolittle and Camp (1999) as cited in Berns and
Erickson (2001) assume that “behaviourisms has served as the basic teaching and
learning for Career and Technical Education.” Thus, it may be used in teaching
students of the vocational high schools. Besides, Berns and Erickson (2001) say
that “practicing specific skills offers a behaviouristic means for teaching and
learning and school should teach students the right work and moral habits.”
Accordingly, practice which is part of behaviourism may be used for the
vocational high schools in teaching learning process in order to teach students to
work and form habit. Thus, practice is considered in this research.
A Communication Practice Model concerns students with
communicating and practicing. Here, practice is being the focus. Since practice
makes perfect in the behaviourism, this research promotes practicing. However,
practice in this research refers to train or exercise to apply or perform
communicating actively. In this research, practice is not only about imitating and
repeating but it invites students to be more creative to transfer what they want by
communicating. In this research, practicing gives students opportunity to build his
mind and to use their knowledge.
Practicing allows students to continually use or do. Harmer (2007: 52)
conditioned to produce the language successfully on all future occasions.” Thus,
habit formation is being created by practicing. By formatting habit, students are
expected to be common to communicate actively. The formatting habit is not only
through imitating but also though building students knowledge. Besides,
according to Harmer (2007: 346), “repetition has benefits which are to help
students fix words or topics in students’ memory and to allow students to improve
on what they did before.” Thus, practicing which refers to habit formation and
repetition is aimed as rehearsal for students in communicating so that students can
communicate fluently.
In conclusion, this research points out a practice as rehearsal in helping
students communicate. Students should be creative in practicing and they may not
just imitate. Thus, this research offers the theory of practice to give explanation
about the definition of practice in this research. Moreover, students may not only
imitate but they also should use their knowledge and experience to relate what
they are learning to the real context so that they can be able to communicate. It
can be concluded that practicing in Communication Practice model is a rehearsal
for students to make them familiar with communicating and to promote students
to relate to the real context.
3. Four Strands of Language Course
In this part, theories of four language strands of language course will give
part presents some focuses which are the four strands by Nation (2007:1) and
Fluency Development strand.
a. The Four Strands by Nation
Language course involves many activities for students in classroom.
Learning activities can influence learning process. How to combine activities
should be considered in order to achieve the goal of language learning. A certain
activity may not be the only focus in a language course because each activity
should have a portion in language course. Consequently, language course should
cover balanced activities.
Balancing activities in language course is necessary. In balancing
activities in language course, Nation (2007) classifies main types of activity into
four stands of language course. The four strands of language course consist of
four focuses. Besides, every strand should be proportional in implementing. The
four strands of language course by Nation (2007: 1) are Meaning-focused input
that means learning through listening and reading and is called as receptive
language use, Meaning-focused output that is productive language use and refers
to learning through speaking and writing, Language-focused learning which is
also called as form-focused instruction and refers to deliberate learning of
language figures like spelling, pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary and Fluency
Development activity that involves four skills of English, such as speaking,
1) Learning through Listening and Reading
The first strand is related to listening and reading. Nation (2007:2) says,
“In this strand which is meaning-focused input, students’ focus is on
understanding and obtaining knowledge from what they are listening to and
reading.” This strand promotes students to learn using listening and reading
activity. Students’ activities will cover listening and reading sections. The
activities for this meaning-focused input can be listening to story, extensive
reading, watching video or TV, etc. However, Nation (2007: 2) gives limitation
that meaning-focused input only exists when students are familiar to what they are
listening to and reading, when they like the input and want to understanding it,
when they can get knowledge by clue and background knowledge and when the
quantities of input are large. Meaning-focused input also exists when students
may not know only a small proportion of language features, for example, they
should know 95-98% of vocabulary and they may not know only 5% (Hu and
Nation (2000) as cited in Nation, 2007: 2).
2) Learning through Speaking and Writing
This strand which is meaning-focused output involves activities like
writing letter or diary, conversation, role play and so on. Meaning-focused input
and meaning-focused output can be combined. It is possible when a student’s
output may become another student’s input. Nation (2007: 3) assumes that this
strand can be presented if students write and talk something that is familiar to
other, if they can use communication strategies, dictionary or previous input when
they need and if there are sufficient opportunities to write and speak.
3) Language-focused Learning
Language-focused learning may not spend the whole time allocation in
classroom although it is also important. Thus, each strand should be balanced.
Nation (2007) also gives restraint to language-focused learning.
Language-focused learning will succeed when students have conscious attention to language
features, when they should process the language features deeply and considerate
ways, when there should be chance to provide spaced and repeated attention to the
same features, when the features that students learn should be simple and should
not depend on the knowledge that they do not have, and when features in
language-focused learning should also be included in the other three strands
frequently (Nation, 2007:5).
4) Fluent in Listening, Speaking, Reading, and Writing
Fluent in listening, speaking, reading and writing refers to Fluency
Development. In this strand, students can transfer and receive message so that
communication can occur. The fluency strand occurs when students listen to, read,
speak and write things that are familiar to them, when their focus is on
transmitting and receiving message, when there are some supports to perform
faster, and when input and output should be large (Nation, 2007: 6).
In addition, the four strands of language course should be balanced to
meaning-focused input, meaning-focused output and fluency should have their
portion to be balanced. For example, in intermediate level, language-focused
spends 20% from time allocation, meaning-focused listening and reading needs
30%, meaning-focused speaking and writing spends about 20% from time
allocation, and fluency activities needs 30% (Nation, 1996: 11-12). Therefore,
those four stands focus on activities that promote students to practice the English
skills. In summary, those four strands can be described as follows.
Figure 2.2 Summary of four strands (Nation, 2007)
Figure 2.2 shows Language Input includes learning language through
listening and reading. It means learners should understand and get information
from what they read and listen (Nation, 2007: 2). Besides, Language Output in
LANGUAGE OUTPUT
LANGUAGE FOCUS
FLUENCY
DEVELOPMENT
speaking and writing
spelling, pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary
FOUR SKILLS OF
ENGLISH LANGUAGE
INPUT
reading
figure 2.2 means learning language through speaking and writing. “The focus of
the learners in this language output is on conveying ideas and messages” (Nation,
1996: 7). On the other hand, Language Focus in figure 2.2 refers to learning
through language items and language figure such as grammar explanation,
spellling excercises, or vocabulary study” (Nation, 1996: 7). Fluency
Development in figure 2.2 includes listening, speaking, reading, and writing in the
learning. Thus, “the activities in this Fluency Development consist of speed
reading, repeated retelling, ten-minutes writing, and listening to easy story”
(Nation, 2007: 6). The learners should accept and communicate the information in
Fluency Development.
However, this research uses one strand that is Fluency Development
strand. Fluency Development strand engages four English skills. This strands is
suitable with English for the vocational high schools because English is intregated
in the vocational high schools. Therefore, this research considers Fluency
Development to design the Communication Practice Model.
b. Fluency Development Strand
In this Fluency Development strand, some activities to promote
communication may be used such as speed reading, short writing and listening to
easy story (Nation, 2007: 6). In this research, the Fluency Development may be
combined with some pedagogical principles of four strands. There are ten
pedagogical principles by Nation. However, this research only employs five
The five pedagogical principles may guide teacher in language course.
The five pedagogical principles are based on Nation (2007: 9-10). The first
pedagogical principle is to encourage students to create spoken and written output
by using communication activities in variety of circumstances, employing role
plays, or matching writing and speaking tasks to student needs. The second
pedagogical principle is to offer chances for cooperative communication by doing
group work and getting students to work together on writing and reading. The
third pedagogical principle is to guide students in strategies that will contribute to
language learning by guessing from context, using dictionary, analyzing word part
and learning through word cards. The fourth pedagogical principle is to offer
Fluency Development activities in each of the four skills of listening, speaking,
reading and writing by running a speed reading course, including repeated
reading, providing an extensive reading program, doing 4/3/2activities, organizing
a regular ten-minute writing program and listening to stories. The fifth
pedagogical principle is to apply analysis, monitoring and assessment to help in
dealing with students’ language and communication needs.
Those five pedagogical principles may be realized to invite students to
communicate and encourage students to speak more. Those five pedagogical
principles give an opportunity for students to communicate in the classroom
through doing activities which focus on communication. Besides, the Fluency
Development is really essential to help students communicate to create
Although the four strands by Nation can be helpful for students, this
research takes the last strand which is Fluency Development strand to be the basic
of the effective model. Thus, the Communication Practice Model employs
Fluency Development. Since Fluency Development strand considers about
transferring and receiving message and engages listening, reading, speaking and
writing (Nation, 2007: 6), the Communication Practice Model prefers the Fluency
Development strand to other strands.
In conclusion, the Fluency Development strand is used in designing the
Communication Practice Model. By using that strand, communication can occur
so that students can practice communicating more. The Fluency Development
strand is selected in order to build activities to promote communication. It can be
concluded that the Communication Practice Model puts the Fluency Development
strand as its focus to allow students in improving their ability to communicate in
English.
4) Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Communicative Language Teaching is useful in this research to provide
theory needed. The Communicative Language Teaching is utilized as a theory to
create the Communication Practice Model. Indirectly, the Communication
a. The Nature of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Communicative Language Teaching is one of methodology in language
teaching. Richards (2006: 2) says, “Communicative language teaching can be
understood as a set of principles about the goals which is the communicative
competence, how learners learn a language, the kinds of classroom activities that
best facilitate learning, and the roles of teachers and learners in the classroom.”
However, the communicative competence has some aspects. According to
Richards (2006, 3), the aspects of the communicative competence involve
knowing how to use language for different intentions and goals, knowing how to
vary the use of language according to the situation, knowing how to produce and
understand different types of texts, and knowing how to maintain communication
Those aspects should be included in language teaching to create
communication. Harmer (2007: 70) says that the aim of CLT is improving the
ability of students to communicate. Thus, the communicative competence can
help students able to communicate.
b. Fluency Activities in CLT
Communicative Language Teaching or CLT has many goals. The
example of CLT’s goals is to build up fluency in language use (Richards, 2006:
14). Thornbury (2000) explains that fluency focuses on the message not on the
form. Therefore, fluency tends to be the way people speak and it does not focus on
structure of the utterance. There are six activities which focus on fluency based on
that the activities should promote students to use common language. The second
is to focus on realizing communication. The activities should accommodate
students to interact with other so the communication can occur. The third is to
involve significant use of language. The activities should provide language which
is meaningful. The fourth is to involve the use of communication strategies. The
fifth is to create language that may not be expected. It means that language which
is used in the class should be creative. The last is to try to link language use to
context. Activities should invite students to connect language to daily life context
or certain situation.
Those activities refer to activities which encourage students to be more
fluent in speaking. Thus, those activities may help students be able to
communicate. Those activities are related to fluency so it will be useful for
students to be fluent in using language.
c. Mechanical, Meaningful, and Communicative Practice
The Communicative Language Teaching engages communicative
practice. There are three main practices that support CLT based on Richards
(2006: 16). Firstly, mechanical practice belongs to a controlled practice activity
which students can do without necessarily understanding the language they are
using. Examples of this kind of activity are repetition drills and substitution drills.
Secondly, meaningful practice is an activity where language control is still
presented but where students need to make meaningful choices when practicing.
language within a real communicative context is the focus, where real information
is replaced, and where the language used is not totally expected.
The communicative practice can be used in this research since this
research is about the Communication Practice Model. This research considers the
communicative practice to support the Communication Practice Model. Activities
which engage fluency can improve students’ ability to communicate. The
communicative practice concerns students in using meaningful and fluent
language so that communication can exist.
In conclusion, the Communication Practice Model is related to the
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). CLT involves fluency activities and
communicative practice so it can be used to develop the Communication Practice
Model. The fluency activities and communicative in CLT provide activities and
practice that promote students to communicate. Therefore, in this research, the
Communication Practice Model applies not only Fluency Development strand by
Nation but also CLT theory to enable students to communicate fluently.
5) Speaking
Here, theory of speaking is discussed. There are two main points in this
part. The first is the nature of speaking. The second is the speaking activities.
a. The Nature of Speaking
Since the focus of this research is on students’ speaking to communicate,
(2009: 1) states, “Speaking is the productive oral or aural skill and comprises
producing systematic verbal utterances to convey meaning that involves
producing, receiving, and processing information.” On the other hand,
“Competencies can be considered as a set of knowledge, skills and attitude a
person requires for carrying out a certain task” (Van Mil & Van Muyden, 2002 as
cited in Meijles, Rip, Bakker and Epema, 2004: 2). Thus, speaking competence
can be referred as the combination of awareness, ability and thoughts which is to
transfer meaning in spoken.
In addition, speaking also has a function which is interpersonal function.
Harmer (2007: 343) describes “interpersonal function as all about maintaining and
sustaining relation between people.” Thus, speaking as interpersonal function is
related to communication because interaction with other people occurs.
Consequently, theory of speaking is discussed here.
A speaker of English can be called as a competent speaker when he or
she has competence. There are some combined views of several language teachers
about a competent speaker. According to Goh and Burns (2012: 50), a competent
speaker can speak fluently and with few or no grammatical mistakes, can be
understood easily by others, can speak fluently and clearly on a wide range of
topics, is confident when speaking to a large audience, and knows when to say the
right things and says them in the most effective way possible.
Therefore, from the some combined views about a competent speaker, it
may be concluded that speaking competence is related to many important aspects
skill in the oral mode” (Ekbatani, 2011: 3). Speaking deals with oral activity of
transferring meaning. In delivering a message, oral system is important in
speaking. However, speaking as a productive skill should consider aspects which
are beneficial. One of the important aspects in speaking can be fluency.
Another important thing in speaking is repetition. Harmer (2007: 346)
says, “Repetition allows students to improve on what they did before.” By
practicing speaking continually, it will help students improve their ability.
Howarth as cited in Harmer (2007: 346) assumes repetition as a process of
speaking. That process can be showed as follows.
plan → perform→ analyze ←→repeat
Figure 2.3 Repetition as speaking process
Figure 2.3 explains that repetition is included in speaking process. The
process involves plan, perform, analyze and repeat. By repetition, students have
more time to practice. Harmer (2007: 346) states that “if students have a chance to
rehearse and try out, they will do more fluently in the second time.” Therefore,
repetition is required in speaking.
b. Speaking Activities
Practicing speaking in the classroom is required. Harmer also provides
Harmer (2007: 348-352) are divided into six activities. The first activity refers to
acting from a script. This activity allows students to act based on a play, film or a
story in a book. They can also act dialogues that they write by themselves. The
examples of this activity are play scripts and acting out dialogue. The second
activity is a communication game. A communication game is appropriate for
communication practice. “It can help students talking as quickly and fluently as
possible” (Harmer, 2007: 349). The examples of the communication game are
information-gap games, television and radio games, etc. The third activity is
discussion. Discussion invites students to have interaction to others. It can be
implemented in a small group or whole-group. Here, communication can occur
since each student will speak each other. The example of discussion can be debate
and unplanned discussion. The fourth activity is prepared talk. In this activity,
communication may also happen. Here, students are asked to make presentation.
They should present a topic or something. The presentation is prepared so that
students can arrange well. Communication happens when a student transfers
information by presenting. Besides, other student can ask question so answer and
question session is done here. The fifth activity is questionnaires. Teachers take a
part in this activity. Teachers help students in preparing questionnaire. For
example, a questionnaire about the most interesting movie can be used in this
activity. Teachers should help students if students need. The result of
questionnaire can be used as topic for discussion or prepared talk. When
discussing or having prepared talk, communication may also exist. Thus,
