CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT: A NIGHTMARE FOR PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS AT LAB HIGH SCHOOL SALATIGA
Listyani, M.Hum.
Satya Wacana Christian University Salatiga
Abstract
All students of the English Department of the Faculty of Language and Literature at Satya Wacana Christian University Salatiga have to go take a course called Teaching Practice (PPL), which is worth 4 credits. In this course, they have learn to teach in the real world, and they have to do what common teachers do, like designing their lesson plans and preparing AVAs for their teaching. Brown (2001) mentions that preparing an appropriately-timed lesson plan is one of the most difficult aspects of controlling lesson plans. In this study, I was interested in the area of classroom management as it still becomes a nightmare for many teaching practice students while they are teaching in the real class situations. That is why this study raised one central question, that is, how the pre-service teachers faced problems dealing with classroom management while doing their teaching practice at Satya Wacana Senior High School (Lab SHS) this semester. Data were gathered mainly through reflections that students had to submit every time they were done with their teaching. From the on going process, findings showed that almost all of the ten students doing their teaching practice at Lab Senior High School Salatiga in Semester II, 2012-2013, faced time management problems during their teaching practices. The ways in which the students handled this difficult situation will also be presented. This study hopefully contributes insights for other pre-service students who will do their teaching practice, as well as for lecturers who are going to supervise them.
Rules for classroom management
“The teacher is most powerful player in classroom dynamics and determines the class structure”
Stevick, (1999)
opportunities for unproductive opportunities like chatter among students. This kind of activities have a great potency to cause cumulative disorder which finally leads to warning, reprimand or other disciplinary actions from the teacher, which can delay the whole process at the beginning. This process includes three phases, they are, greeting, seating, and starting. As a whole, starting a lesson which is efficient is important.
The second rule proposed by Collins (1993) is get them out. This rule talks about an effective ending to a lesson. Opportunities for trouble making may happen at the end of a lesson. Collins (1993:5) further claims that “Carefully planning the end of each lesson is a crucial part of the way in which experienced teachers successfully handle transition from one activity to another”. A noisy and chaotic ending can ruin beautiful relationship between the teacher and the class; the effect of an intriguing teaching-learning experience can also be wasted. Two stages of ending a lesson that teachers should think of carefully are concluding a lesson and dismissing the class.
The next rule is get on with it. It here refers to the main part of the lesson, content and manner of presentation. According to Collins (1993: 7-8), difficulties in learning often result in problems with students‟ behavior. Content of the lesson and students‟ ability are not matched. Persistent failure may cause dissatisfaction or even hostility. Therefore, careful study on the curriculum should be done by the curriculum department as well as the teachers involved. Another thing is that methods and materials should also be closely examined in order to confirm that learning experiences are suitable, and tasks are manageable for students with diverse abilities and aptitudes. Raban and Postlethwaite (1988), as cited by Collins (1993) propose some wise ways to do this: by finding out what students have already known, building on what is already understood, planning small steps for each teaching goal, and getting ready to adjust those plans in case there is no progress made.
Flow of classroom activities is very important to discipline, because interruptions will lead to distraction and loss of interest for both the students and teacher. There are times when allowing more practices and discussion, and thus giving less teaching are necessary. About balance in activities, Collins (1993:7) mentions that,
“Finding the correct balance is not always easy, too much of the same thing becomes tedious, too many changes become confusing, but most lessons should involve some listening, some looking, some thinking, some talking, some reading and some writing.”
In other words, teachers must be able to seek balance for classroom activities.
Still about the third rule, manner of material presentation is necessary. This is about how teachers address and question students, and how they convey expectations about students‟ behavior. The atmosphere of the classroom is, in Collins‟ (1993) view, like a weather system: it is subject to changes and an effective teacher is skilled at finding and dispersing a minor disturbance before it breaks into a big depression. The manner of how a teacher address a class reflects an attitude and sends a message through what is said and how it is said.
Another important aspect in presentation mannerism is a clear and sufficient volume, which is needed to anticipate an assumption that at least there is one child with a hearing loss. Using eyes to communicate is another important aspect for addressing students, which Marland (1975) in Collins (1993) refers to as „lighthouse technique‟. Another aspect of the manner of teaching is the point and purpose of the teacher‟s use of questions. Teachers should see questioning as a means of checking students‟ understanding of the material, a means for correcting an incorrect answer (as the teacher‟s fault for inadequate explanation), and an occasion for further expansion and illustration instead of reprimand. Questions must not be embarrassing nor humiliating students‟ ability.
effectively done if teachers are always are of who is who and what is going on. Knowing a student‟s name will make discipline easier. This also brings another positive effect. This shows teachers‟ effort to remember names and also their interests and willingness in the students as well. As a whole, examining classroom organization will enable teachers to find ways to avoid misbehaved students, teachers thus can improve encouragement to students.
Two other aspects which determine classroom environment are rules and routines. Rules, according to Collins (1993), define the boundaries for behavior in the classroom. McManus (1989) cited by Collins (1993:17), states that students will try to discover and test teachers‟ rules, exploring what they suspect to be “permissible”. Teachers therefore need to be persistent in setting up rules. Well-planned routines, in Gray and Richer (1988), cited in Collins (1993), will establish balance between the teacher‟s work agenda and social agenda. This kind of balance will ensure that the teaching-learning process goes on with a clear objective in a friendly atmosphere (p.18).
Group work to enhance good classroom management
Talking about methods that enhance good classroom environment, Collins (1993) further claim that‟ “Teaching methods must still be sufficiently flexible to cope with a range of capacities for learning. This requires making decisions about teaching methods which imply different arrangements for class, group and individual teaching and consequent consideration of classroom layout and design”.
One of the methods is using group work. However, giving different tasks to different groups arranged based on the levels of students‟ proficiency can cause danger of stigmatization and lowering teacher expectation as well as students‟ aspiration (Collins, 1993:20). Managing smaller groups is better since it can increase students‟ visibility, encourage communication and stimulate competitive learning without weakening students‟ confidence. This also avoids embarrassment of nervous and inarticulate students. In classroom, however, teachers‟ attention tends to focus on limited “action zone”; the front or the middle rows (Good and Brophy, 1984, in Collins (1993:21)). Group work is good for problem solving skills, socializing, and practicing co-operative learning, as well as competitive learning, in a less threatening setting. Less able or nervous and shy students can have greater opportunities to participate and to develop their interpersonal skills as well.
Lewis (2002:46) strengthens this idea, she claims that one way of managing a large, multilevel class is by organizing students in groups. The division can be three parts, like whole class discussion, dividing class into two halves, and pair work or small groups. Lewis (2002) explains further that there are several types of group work: free discussion, projects, and particular group work called tasks.
Lesson planning, lesson management and materials presentation
About lesson preparation or lesson planning and material presentation, Collins (1993:26-30), citing from Kerry and Pilling (1990), suggests some check list with the questions as the following: Is the prepared work relevant to all students? Is it presented in a way which will interest all, providing basic understanding for the weak, but a stimulus for the most able? Is it sufficient to fill the allocated time? When it is realized in the form of materials, Collins also proposes a checklist with these questions: Is material presented in a manner which captures the students’ interest? Do they get bored easily? Do they respond better to certain parts of the lesson?
About lesson planning, Hedge (2003:30-3), citing from Everard and Morris (1985) suggests that lesson plans should be purposeful, task specific, temporal, adaptable, integrated, and cost-effective. Learning activities should be linked with the aims of the lesson, interdependent, and flexible, can be adapted emerging needs and unexpected events that happen in the classroom. Timing should be monitored as the lesson proceeds.
contrary to point one: teachers must know, which part will be sacrificed incase of lack of time. Another important suggestion is to keep a watch or clock visible so that teachers are always aware of the time. Next is that teachers should not leave “homework” in the last minute. Explanation should be given earlier so that students‟ attention is still on the teacher, and review or reminder at the end of the lesson. The fifth is never give every piece of paper to each student especially in a large class. It is a good idea to give some paper to some students, ask them to get one piece only, and pass the rest to other students. The last tip is teachers have to make sure that they give clear and understandable instructions to the students and that the instructions are understood before dividing the students into groups.
The clarity of material presentation is also an important factor in classroom management. The following questions will help pre-service teachers to ensure that the materials in their lesson plans will be delivered clearly and they have clear instruction: Are assignments clear enough, so that each student knows exactly what is expected? Do some students give up because they do not know what to do? Do others go off on the wrong track, not because they cannot do the work, but because they get the instructions wrong? Can the pupil read at whatever level the material is presented? Does he have the vocabulary necessary to grasp new concepts? Are there too many long words and involved sentences? (p.30). About the role of instruction, Gordon (2007) asserts that it is really significant, especially when it is used in academic concepts and used to help students develop reasoning skills.
Other aspects that can be the source of disruption in managing a classroom are teachers‟ stress and anxiety as discussed below.
Teacher stress and anxiety
According to Esteve (1990), in Collins (1993:116), events in the classroom and teachers‟ interactions with the students can cause stress, and this is what Esteve calls primary factors.
Teacher stress can be defined as experiencing unpleasant emotions like tension, anger, frustration, anxiety, depression, and nervousness. All this may result from teachers‟ work (.Kyriacou (1990), cited by Collins (1993)). Teacher stress happens when there are demands on a person that exceed his/her adjustive resources (Lazarus (1963)). Professionally, teachers should be able to restrain their anger towards the student(s) who has/have provoked it. Anger is closely related to anxiety. According to Collins (1993:118), anxiety is caused by teahers‟ uncertainty that they won‟t be able to control their anger. There are some ways to avoid anger, one of which is to anticipate, prevent, and be proactive about it.
One main source of teachers‟ anxiety is the teachers‟ mind that they won‟t be able to maintain discipline, especially if they know that there are disruptive students in the classroom. Collins (1993) further states the relationship between the teacher and students becomes the basis of effective discipline. Collins (1993) also gives explanation about the relationship between teachers‟ anxiety and self esteem:
If teachers are unable to maintain classroom discipline, this is a serious threat to their self-esteem. They perceive themselves, and a re perceived by others, as being able to control pupils and they are aware that, if they cannot control them, they will not succeed in teaching them. Thus, failure in control is a double threat to their self-esteem. There is the humiliation of being exposed to a very critical audience – the pupils themselves – and there is their knowledge that their inadequate discipline prevents them from discharging their primary task as teachers (p.120-1).
to another person who is not involved in the school, but has sympathy on that particular teacher. The last suggestion is to have a kind of reflection on the classroom situation; what was happening, the teacher and students‟ behavior. Reflective questions as the following will help: What did the pupil or pupils actually do? What did I do? Why did I make this response? What was I doing then? In what ways was the disruptive behavior different from similar behavior which I have previously managed successfully? Is there any sort of pattern to the disruptive behavior? Is it always the same pupil? Is it happening at certain times in the lesson?
With this kind of sharing and reflection, there are at least two advantages. Besides releasing stress by sharing to other colleagues, teachers will surely have clues for the students‟ misbehavior and clues for their appropriate reactions, provided that similar events take place. Galwey (1970) and Harré and Rosser (1975) (in Collins (1993:127)) have provided some findings from their little survey of interviewing high schools students. Overall, these students mentioned that they respected teachers who could control them, and were skilled in it. Among others, these students also liked teachers who were not rude, who were humorous, not too strict, could express their anger appropriately, were honest in the sense that they admitted when they were wrong. Other respected teachers were those who learned their names and remembered them, did not have favorites, and were not boring. Oxford (1999) (in Lewis (2002)) adds that there are several ways to reduce anxiety, including talking about the problem, and minimizing conditions that might increase it; laughter and music can be antidotes to anxiety.
Managing students with particular behavior
Managing a classroom also includes managing certain students‟ behavior. In this case, experienced teachers will know, whether they have to ignore these students or attend them. Several types of behavior are described by Lewis (2002:42-3) as follows. The first are students who are called “back-row distractor”. These students always sit at the back row and distract others. To handle this kind of behavior, teachers are suggested to use eye contact, stare until the students stop, and have a talk with the students after class. The next type of particular behavior is “the non participant” who are passive and not taking part in any class activity. In order to handle this kind of students, Lewis (2002) suggests that teachers ignore them provided that they are not distracting others, walk past their desks and ask what their problems are, and the last suggestion is consult other colleagues how the same students participate in the classroom. “The overexuberant student” is the last kind that Lewis describes. This student is an outgoing one, tends to dominate the class: questioning, commenting, and talking all the time. To handle this kind of students, teachers should interrupt them and say, “Thanks”, remind them that there will be talking time soon, and talk to the student individually after class.
Talking about students‟ motivation, we should understand that students have different motivations. Lewis (20020 in Richards and Renandya (2002:41) mentions that teachers do influence the classroom environment by motivating unmotivated students. Unmotivated students may manifest their lack of motivation in many ways: sitting in silence, distracting other students‟ attention by talking off the topics, and providing an environment which is non-language. Language teachers need to motivate students through intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation may come through rewards. Rewards, however, should be used wisely and efficiently, based on the class situations, since rewards can be either enjoyable or destroying enjoyment, as stated by van Lier (1996) (cited by Lewis (2002)). Rewards can be given in form of extra reading materials, watching a video after a difficult task, or inviting a guest speaker.
teachers to change activities soon. Out-of-class problems can be a coming sports match, weather change, or a coming picnic with the whole students in parallel classes.
One important aspect of managing a classroom is that no matter what role a teacher takes (as a conductor of an orchestra; as a gardener; or as a tap pouring water), the teacher must be able to manage any kind of situation, be it predictable or unpredictable. Dealing with students‟ spontaneous question should also be anticipated and planned. Teachers must take a decision soon: answer, postpone, or dismiss the question. Teachers, according to Stevick (1996), as quoted by Lewis (2002:46), are the most powerful players in the classroom dynamics and they determine the class structure.
The study
This study is aimed to answer one central question, that is, how students doing their teaching practice at Lab Senior High School Salatiga in Semester II, 2012-2013 Academic Year dealt with classroom management problems. Ten students became the participants of this study, 4 female and 6 male students. Their class years (angkatan) vary from 2006 to 2009. Data were mainly gathered through teaching journals that each had to submit via email every time they had finished teaching. Altogether, each student was required to teach six times, two of which were pair-teaching, that is, they taught with another peer student, and the division of the time is 50-50, one student taught for the first part (45 minutes) and the second student the last 45 minutes. In the following part, discussion on the difficulties as I got from the students‟ journals is presented.
Among the participants, six students had got some teaching experience before. The following table will clarify the student teachers who became my participants in this study.
Participants’ initials Class year Sex Teaching experiences Time spent teaching
Student A 2009 F - -
Student B 2006 F - -
Student C 2008 M Sunday school
Private course
5 years 6 months
Student D 2009 F Private course
Study club (??)
6 months 4 months
Student E 2006 M - -
Student F 2009 F PPA Bethel Church
Rumah Belajar (??) SD Marsudirini (??)
3 years 2 years 2 months
Student G 2009 F Salib Putih Orphanage 1 year
Student H 2008 M - -
Student I 2008 M GKI Salatiga 1 week
Student J 2008 M Private course (??) 6 months
From the table above, the participants‟ experiences and class years can be clearly seen. Some students even did not have any teaching experience before, and many of them have taught in either formal or informal institutions.
From the journals that I got from the students, the following became the biggest problems with classroom management. There were four problems that the students encountered
a. Pre-service teachers’ inner problems: anxiety, confidence and feelings
Several student teachers who did their teaching practice at Lab SHS Semester II/ 2012-2013 Academic year experienced some inner problems like anxiety, lack of confidence, and other negative feelings like fear and worries. Student A, for example, in her second teaching, she still felt worried and nervous, she was afraid if she could not deliver the materials well to the students. Besides this inner problem, Student A also mentioned that the class was too crowded. As mentioned by Lewis (2002:43), large, multilevel classes with fixed furniture can be constraints for students to talk. Another participant who encountered this problem was Student C. The feeling that pre-service teachers at this school were underestimated by students in the high school heightened his feeling. “When I entered the classroom, the students were looking at us (Student C and his partner during pair-teaching) as if they were looking at aliens. I was very nervous at the first time.” Student D also experienced a similar problem; just like Student C, students‟ lack of interest also made her down. The difference was that she could overcome this problem when she tried to build communication with the students. But, she thought that once she showed her anxiety to the class, the students would not respect her. To her surprise, she found the students nice, smart, and creative. The following is Student D‟s statement in her first teaching reflection.
“Those things (having disinterested students) made me down and I became more frustrated. However, I had to stay calm in front of them (the students) because once I show my anxiety, they won’t respect me. But, my anxiety was gone when I tried to communicate with them…they were not like what I thought, they were nice, smart, and creative. They were cooperative enough, so I can create a good atmosphere in the class and made the activity become fun.” (Student D‟s first teaching reflection)
Another problem that Student D encountered was her shyness. She admitted that she was a very shy person, and she did not talk much. She had average communication skills. Similar problems dealing with nervousness and fear of not being able to handle the class well, especially in the first teaching, was also experienced by Student E, F, G, and J. In my observation, Student E had a problem with his self-confidence and he did not have any assurance that what he did would be successful. He was one of two students from the oldest class year (2006). There were only two students who never felt nervous in their teaching; they were Student H and I. In my observation, they could be considered as students with high confidence level. All in all, I can conclude that being pre-service teachers whom students might not fully respect, and teaching for the first time made most of my participants feel nervous, worried, and afraid. Self-assurance was among other things that they could do to calm themselves down.
b. Time problems
All student-teachers who were doing their teaching practicum at Lab SHS encountered this problem. Student B, for example, even until her sixth teaching, was still haunted by this problem. She got very frustrated about it, “I prepared for many activities, but in the reality, I just did the half of them. It was very frustrating. It was only one hour and I should cover everything. Luckily, Mrs. N. (the mentor teacher) said that it doesn’t matter and she just wants to see our progress as a teacher.” Student C spent too much time when giving a game to his students. On the other way around, in her first teaching, Student D wasted too much time doing nothing out of her bewilderedness. She said that she felt like a stupid person because they (her teaching partner and her) were just standing in front of the classroom. It was really frustrating for her.
Student E also spent too much time for an activity in several teaching practices. Sometimes it made him blank. Limited time in consulting the lesson plan also became another problem that he had to solve. Student F, H, I and J also had a similar problem. Time allocation really needs careful consideration. Student J, for example, allocated 15 minutes for poster making. In fact, it took the students 25 minutes to finish the activity. “It was a It was a disaster, I never thought that it would take so long. So to the consequences for that matter, is that the last activity couldn’t be realized. I asked them to do it at home as homework because the time had already been up.” About this problem, Kerry and Pilling (1990) in Collins (1993) have suggested some check list with the questions, one of which is “Is it sufficient to fill the allocated time?” However, these pre-service teachers‟ being new in their teaching experiences and their inaccurate time allocation can be understood.
c. Problems with disruptive students
As elaborated above, Collins (1993) strongly claims that If teachers are unable to maintain classroom discipline, this is a serious threat to their self-esteem. Being unable to control the class situation will bring teachers to panic-stricken condition, anxiety, and worse than that, may affect their self-esteem. Lewis (1993) again reminds us that there 3 kinds of disruptive students: “back-row distractor” (trouble maker sitting at the back), “the non participant” (passive or disinterested student) and “the overexuberant student” (over-dominating student).
Almost all of the participants had to deal with these kinds of students in the classroom. Only Student H and J did not report anything related to disruptive student behavior. Student A had to deal with students who had lack of interest and were not paying attention. Student B had to deal with the back-row distractors, noisy students at the back, while Student C had to handle passive students and this made him even more nervous. Here is his statement: “When the students were passive, it actually influenced my teaching too. I became less motivated and very nervous.”
Noisy and disinterested students had to be faced also by Student D. Student E‟s experience was a bit unique, since he was facing passive students form science class and the game that he gave them did not work. Student F had a strategy to handle this situation: she separated noisy students, so that they did not distract others. Student G also had to deal with nosy and passive students. Student I stated that the overexuberant students dominated the class when he assigned students to give opinions and conduct a debate. The following statement will clarify this.
“There were 2 other activities we planned to do when we taught the student, which are about making and giving opinion and a debate. About the debate, when we did it in the class, we hoped that every student would take part and could be shared their opinion, but in fact the debate was dominated by one group”. (Student I‟s second teaching reflection)
time was they used a lot of activities, so once the students showed their boredom, they quickly moved from one game to another. And it worked nicely for them.
From this discussion, I can conclude that as whole, passive students, distracting students, and dominating students are always there. It is the teachers who have to find strategies to overcome this situation.
d. Problems with materials preparation and presentation
Another nightmare for pre-service students is materials preparation and presentation. Several participants realized after their first teaching that presenting materials in interesting ways is really needed. Check-list questions as proposed by Kerry and Pilling (1990) can help pre-service teachers in preparing their materials: Is the prepared work relevant to all students? Is it presented in a way which will interest all, providing basic understanding for the weak, but a stimulus for the most able? Many participants stumbled over this problem. Student B for example, felt that she needed to find strategies to grab students‟ attention. Among others, she could be classified as a pre-service teacher who improved as her teaching progressed. Boring activities which did not work for passive students also became a big problem for Student E. Besides having a problem with his confidence and self-esteem as discussed in the previous part, this student had no idea of how to make the activities interesting.
Student C experienced another thing related to the preparation of AVA. In his second teaching about descriptive text, his partner and he did not display pictures of Borobudur temple, which became the topic of discussion, and did not display some explanations on the LCD. Student I also fell over the problem of providing clear and better slides displayed on the LCD. In his teaching series, Student C, however, improved a lot, and, learning from previous experiences, in his fifth teaching, he could teach with interesting AVA and activities. “All of them (the students) were enthusiastic to answer questions in the game…the students were more excited because I played video about the grasshopper and the ant…My strength was I used excellent AVA as the mentor teacher said.”
Another student who was successful with his slide presentation was Student H. Starting from his fourth teaching, he used Prezi instead of MS power point slides, and it was successful. Student I had a problem in choosing the wrong material, once he used a video which was too difficult. He was teaching with Student J that time, and the topic was hortatory (argumentative) text. Another problem that I identified about material presentation was related to unclear instruction which was experienced by Student F: “What I expected did not come true. The students were confused what they had to do. I moved around to answer their questions. When I asked them to pass the envelopes, they were not ready. I spent much time in this activity. They were also so noisy so I had to speak loudly...” In this case, looking at the check-list questions proposed by Collins (1993) is worth considering: Are assignments clear enough, so that each student knows exactly what is expected? Do some students give up because they do not know what to do? Do others go off on the wrong track, not because they cannot do the work, but because they get the instructions wrong? Hedge (2003:33) also gives suggestions for trainees or novice teachers to write down instructions in their notes, give students a chance for clarification, and ask students to repeat instructions in the class. This way will help pre-service teachers who have not got any teaching experience.
There were some other findings which I found from the students‟ reflections. The first one was about technical problem like the speakers which did not work (Student B and Student D), and failing internet connection (Student H). In this case, the students were stuck and did not have any back-up plans.
Besides problems with technology, audible voice became a problem too. Many of these pre-service teachers had to practice speaking with clear and louder voice, especially when they taught a big and crowded class. They were Student B, C, E, and F. Brown (2001:194) firmly asserts that good voice projection does not need to be loud, but audible (can be heard) by all students in the classroom.
The last problem that I identified from the students‟ reflections was miscommunication with peer students. In the first two opportunities, these students had to teach in pairs. Student I mentioned that starting from the lesson planning until the real teaching, he got problems of communication with his partner. Combining two ideas is indeed not an easy task. The same problem was experienced by Student C. He mentioned that communicating and combining his ideas with Student I was really difficult, “The difficult thing that I found when I did the teaching practicum in pair was when there was miscommunication with your partner.” For the sake of good teaching cooperation, communication problems as such should have been solved before they went into the real teaching.
Conclusion
Encountering lots of problems may frustrate these student teachers and one of them, that is Student H even claims that he would not be a teacher, and being a teacher would be the last choice: I really hope I can keep this kind of teacher style, even though I do not want to be a teacher for my future. To be a teacher is my last option if I got no other job, I think.
From all that I have discussed above, I can draw several conclusions. First, pre-service teachers need guidance about various attention-grabbing activities during Micro Teaching course. These students should be trained to provide back-up activities in case the activities they provide do not work, or in case they finish everything sooner than expected. They must be ready with plan A or plan B or even C. Asking them to write a reflection every time they finish teaching is also a help for them. They can see their strengths, weaknesses as well as see improvement needed for their next teaching.
List of References
Brown, H. Douglas. Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. 2001. 2nd edition. NY: Addison Wesley Longman Inc.
Gordon, Tatiana. Teaching Young Children a Second Language. 2007. Westport: Praeger Publisher.
Hedge, Tricia. Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. 2003. NY: OUP.
Richards, J.C., and Renandya, Willy. Methodology in Language Teaching. 2002. Cambridge: CUP.
Smith, Colin J. and Laslett, Robert. Effective Classroom Management.1993. Second edition. NY: Routledge Falmer.
Ur, Penny. A Course in Language Teaching. 1996. Cambridge: CUP.
