LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND ITS RELATION TO
ENGLISH SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNERS’
MASTERY OF GRAMMATICAL RULES: A CASE
STUDY OF ENGLISH CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
A Research Paper
Submitted to the English Education Department of the Faculty of Languages and Arts Education of the Indonesian University of Education as a Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for Sarjana Sastra Degree
By:
NURDINI
0808512
ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT
UNIVERSITAS PENDIDIKAN INDONESIA
2014
Language Aptitude and Its Relation
to English Second Language
Lear ers’ Mastery of Gra
atical
Rules: A Case Study of English
Conditional Sentences
Oleh Nurdini
Sebuah skripsi yang diajukan untuk memenuhi salah satu syarat memperoleh gelar Sarjana pada Fakultas Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni
© Nurdini 2014
Hak Cipta dilindungi undang-undang.
Skripsi ini tidak boleh diperbanyak seluruhya atau sebagian, dengan dicetak ulang, difoto kopi, atau cara lainnya tanpa ijin dari penulis.
PAGE OF APPROVAL
Language Aptitude and Its Relation to English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Grammatical Rules: A Case Study of English Conditional
Sentences
A Research Paper
By
Nurdini
0808512
Approved by
NIP. 196009191990031001
Head of Department of English Education
Faculty of Language and Arts Education
Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia Main Supervisor
Prof. Dr. Didi Suherdi, M.Ed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE OF APPROVAL ... i
STATEMENT OF AUTHORIZATION ... ii
PREFACE ... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMNTS... iv
ABSTRACT ... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vii
LIST OF TABLES ... x
LIST OF FIGURES... xi
CHAPTER I ... 1
INTRODUCTION... 1
1.1Background ... 1
1.2Research Question ... 3
1.3Aim of the Study ... 4
1.4Scope of the Study... 4
1.5Significance of the Study ... 4
1.6Research Method ... 4
1.6.1 Research Design ... 4
1.6.2 Site and Subject of the Study ... 4
1.6.3 Data Collection and Instruments ... 5
1.6.4 Data Analysis ... 5
1.7Organization of the Paper... 5
CHAPTER II ... 6
LITERATURE REVIEW... 6
2.1 Second Language (L2) ... 6
2.2 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) ... 6
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2.3 Language Aptitude ... 11
2.3.1 The History of Language Aptitude Test... 11
2.3.2 Language Aptitude Measurements ... 13
2.3.3 Carroll’s Notions of Language Aptitude ... 15
2.4 Conditional Sentences ... 17
3.3Data Collections and Instruments ... 23
3.3.1. The Modern Language Aptitude Test ... 23
4.1The Correlation of Language Aptitude and English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Conditional Sentences... 31
4.1.1 Score Tabulation ... 31
4.1.2 Preliminary Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics ... 32
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Second Language Learners’ Mastery
of Conditional Sentences ... 41
4.1.5 Level of Significance ... 42
4.2. Chapter Summary ... 43
CHAPTER V ... 45
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS ... 45
5.1Conclusion ... 45
5.2Suggestions ... 46
REFERENCES... 47
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 The Perspective of Second Language Acquisition
from Linguists, Psychologists, Psycholinguists, Sociolinguists,
and Social Psycholinguists (Saville- Troike, 2006, p.3) ... 7
Table 2.2 Types of Conditional Sentences (Aitken, 1992) ... 17
Table 3.1 The Modern Language Aptitude Test from Language Learning and Testing Foundation... 23
Table 3.2 The Measurements of Carroll’s Language Aptitude Components based on the MLAT’s Subtests (Carroll, 1990) ... 24
Table 3.3 Test on Conditional Sentences ... 25
Table 3.4 The Absolute Value of r (Evans, 1996) ... 26
Table 3.5 The Value of R (Punithavalli & Sharmi, 2013)... 29
Table 4.1 Descriptive Statistics (N = 20) ... 32
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 The Scatter Plot of MLAT and Test
on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) ... 34
Figure 4.2 The Scatter Plot of Rote Memory and
Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) ... 35 Figure 4.3 The Scatter Plot of Phonetic Coding
and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20) ... 36
Figure 4.4 The Scatter Plot of Grammatical Sensitivity
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ABSTRACT
This research paper attempts to reveal the correlation of language aptitude and English
second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. It also investigates the
relationship between three constituent abilities of language aptitude, such as Rote Memory,
Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity, and the learners’ mastery of conditional
sentences. The study employed a quantitative method. The theory used in the study is language aptitude which is proposed by John Carroll (1981). Two instruments were used in the study, such as the Modern Language Aptitude Test and test on conditional sentences, while the subject of the study involved 20 students who are taking English Language and Literature as their major in a state university in Bandung. The findings reveal that there is a
weak positive relationship between language aptitude and English second language learners’
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ABSTRAK
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This chapter contains the general idea of the study. It covers the background of the study, research questions, aim of the study, scope of the study, significance of the study, research method, and organization of the study.
1.1 Background
Any human beings communicate with each other through languages. There is no limitation in learning many languages as long as they are willing to go through the process in order to learn those languages. Thus, after having full knowledge of the first language, there is any possibility for anyone to learn second language for their necessity. There are many reasons why people decide to take a second language to be learned, either it is for one‟s job or for one‟s education. Therefore, in this case, a second language is important for many people to achieve a certain goal of their lives because good communication leads to a better life. In addition, it is important to learn a second language in order to survive and compete with others in this era.
The word „second‟ in second language refers to any language that is learned
subsequent to the mother tongue, whether that is learning third or fourth language (Ellis, 1997, p.3). In other words, second language can be defined as the language in addition to one‟s first language, although the language may be the third language and so on, to be applied (Saville-Troike, 2006). He (2006) also states that the learning process which is taken by the second language learners can be called second language acquisition.
Nurdini, 2014 second language or foreign language learners‟ cognitive (Dörnyei, 2005). Therefore, in order to find out language learning success in second language or
foreign language which relates to learners‟ cognitive, there are several language
aptitude tests which are used to measure one‟s ability in learning a new language acquisition (SLA) research in its original version (Robinson, 1997). Besides in its original version, MLAT is also available in its translated version, for example MLAT in Hungarian version (DeKeyser, 2000).
Carroll and Sapon (1959) divided the Modern Language Aptitude Test into five subtests; they are Number Learning, Phonetic Script/Phonetic Sensitivity, Spelling Clues, Words in Sentences, and Paired Associates. The explanation about the subtests will be delivered in Chapter II.
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language aptitude is measured by the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as the instrument. Besides using MLAT as the instrument to measure the participants‟ language aptitude, this study also uses a questionnaire regarding conditional sentences to find out their mastery of conditional sentences.
There are some studies which have been conducted in the area of second language acquisition or/and language aptitude. Řepová (2004) conducted a study about the possibility of how a second language learner is able to acquire language interesting topics in psycholinguistics to be studied. Therefore, this study concerns with language aptitude and its relation to English second language learners in analyzing conditional sentences based on their knowledge of the concept of English conditional sentences after finishing their language aptitude test, in this case the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT).
1.2 Research Question
Relevant to the background, this study aims to address the following research questions:
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1.3 Aim of the Study
This study aims to examine the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences by using MLAT as language aptitude instrument and a questionnaire regarding conditional sentences.
1.4 Scope of the Study
This study focuses on the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery regarding conditional sentences. English second language learners that belong to English Education Department of Indonesia University of Education are expected to answers questions from three instruments for this study, they are the Modern Language Aptitude Test and test on conditional sentences. The data are analyzed based on the result from those instruments.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This study is expected to contribute to the development of language aptitude in foreign language studies or second language acquisition. Besides, it will help those who would like to acknowledge more about language aptitude and its relation to English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences.
1.6 Research Method
1.6.1 Research Design
This study conducts a quantitative approach to achieve the aims of the study. It is also known that quantitative approach is used when the study deals with testing relationship, describing two different variables, and examining cause-effect relations (Ragin, 1994).
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The subject of the study focuses on students who learn English as their second language in Indonesia University of Education. The samples consist of 20 university students who took English Language and Literature as their major.
1.6.3 Data Collection and Instruments
The data are collected from a language aptitude test called the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as well as a test on conditional sentences. 1.6.4 Data Analysis
When it comes to analyzing the data, this study goes through several procedures, such as gathering the data which consist of the result of MLAT and test on conditional sentences from participant, analyzing the data from the instruments in accordance to Carroll‟s language aptitude theory and finding the correlation of both variables by using Pearson product-moment coefficient correlation.
Chapter three discusses research methodology, the steps and procedures of the study, and the data resources of the study.
CHAPTER IV
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
The theoretical foundation of the study is elaborated in this chapter. It involves second language (L2), second language acquisition (SLA), language aptitude, conditional sentences and related previous studies.
2.1 Second Language (L2)
The word „second‟ in second language refers to any language that is learned after the learners mastered their first language, whether that is learning third or fourth language (Ellis, 1997). Learning second language becomes important since people are not only communicating with those who share both nationality and first language, but also with people who live in another country in order to make the communication works smoothly. Second language can be identified as additional languages after mother tongue (Ellis, 1997).
Second language can be called as target language (TL) which means “any language that is the aim or goal of learning” (Saville-Troike, 2006, p. 2). In L2, there is the term called second language acquisition (L2 acquisition / SLA) which means the learning process of second language learners (Saville-Troike, 2006). The notion of second language acquisition will be delivered in section 2.2.
2.2 Second Language Acquisition (SLA)
As mentioned in section 2.1, second language acquisition is a learning process taken by second language learners (Saville-Troike, 2006). Regarding L2 Acquisition, Ellis (1997) explains that as “the way in which people learn a
language other than their mother tongue, inside or outside their classroom” (p.3). Second language acquisition itself is a phenomenon involving psychology and linguistics frameworks as well as “their subfields of applied linguistics,
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p. 2). He (2006) points out that the researchers of those fields have different perspective of second language acquisition. The differences are presented in Table 2.1
Table 2.1
The Perspective of Second Language Acquisition from Linguists, Psychologist, Psycholinguists, Sociolinguists, and Social Psychologists (Saville-Troike, 2006, p. 3)
The Researchers Perspective
Linguists Emphasizing the characteristics of the
differences and similarities in the languages that are being learned, and the linguistic competence (underlying knowledge) and linguistic performance (actual production) of learners at various stages of acquisition.
Psychologists and Psycholinguists Emphasizing the mental or cognitive processes involved in acquisition, and the representation of language(s) in the brain.
Sociolinguists Emphasizing variability in learner
linguistic performance, and extend the scope of study to communicative competence (underlying knowledge that
additionally accounts for language use, or pragmatic competence).
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learning.
When it comes to second language acquisition, there are two main factors which are needed to be considered thoroughly; the psychological factors (intellectual processing which includes induction and explication, memory, and motor skills) and social factors (natural situation and classroom situation) (Steinberg, 1993). Both factors affect second language acquisition‟s perspective of children and adults learners. Steinberg (1993) explains that induction in psychological factors includes learning rules of second language based on
learners‟ identification and discovery, while explication includes giving
explanation of L2‟s rules and structures by using learners‟ native language. The research of second language acquisition can be considered as an investigation where non-native speakers learn second language as well as acknowledging their L2 learning process (Mansouri, 2007). When it comes to research on second language acquisition, Krashen (2002) points out:
“…area of second language research and practice that the acquisition learning hypothesis helps to interpret is work in second language
aptitude and attitude, providing a parsimonious explanation for what
had appeared to be a strange finding: both language aptitude (as measured by standard tests) and attitude (affective variables) appear to be related to second language achievement, but are not related to
each other.” (Krashen, 2002, p. 19)
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relate to the concept of L2 grammars or non-native grammars due to the fact that it plays an important role in acquiring second language for learners. Non-native grammars can be called as interlanguage grammars (White, 2003). The concept of interlanguage itself was proposed in 1960s
Regarding interlanguage, Ellis (1997) states:
“The term interlanguage was coined by the American linguist, Larry
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understand the language. However, the basic knowledge of TL is not enough to enrich the development of syntax. Due to the fact, there are many additional factors to influence the development of syntax of second language, such as language transfer and language universals (Gass, 1984).
Language transfer can be described as the possibility to transfer the
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system (Grass, 1984). Sharwood Smith (1980) and Kumpt (1982) stated that language universals can be tested as long as there is the availability of second language data as its basic concept.
2.3 Language Aptitude
The term language aptitude relates closely to second language achievement (Krashen, 2002). Aptitude itself can be defined as “capacity that enhances the rate
and ease of learning” (Carroll, 1981, cited in Ellis, 1994, p. 495). To make it simpler, aptitude can be associated with ability to do something (Dörnyei, 2005).
In other words, language aptitude can be defined as “language learning ability”
(Dörnyei, 2005). Regarding aptitude, Robinson states that:
“Aptitude is therefore a theoretical construct operationalized in the form of a test, which aims to predict phenomena that characterize second language acquisition (SLA) (such as incidental learning, metalinguistic awareness, fossilization, and others) and the extent to which successful SLA occurs as a result.” (Robinson, 2013, p. 1).
Aptitude is considered to be the best way to discover how far the learners aptitude and L2 variables depicts a positive result. Regarding the correlation between language aptitude batteries and the chosen samples, Carroll states:
“The predictive validity coefficients for foreign language aptitude batteries in representative samples are typically in the range .40 to .60 against suitable criterion measures of success in foreign language attainment, such as final course grades, objective foreign language
attainment tests, or instructors‟ estimates of foreign learning ability”
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In the context of second language learning, language aptitude plays an important role. Through aptitude, learners are able to see whether they can get best results in learning L2 compared to others. Since the concept of language aptitude is to figure out the language learning success, it is no wonder if many researchers study the phenomena more thoroughly, especially those who focus on the field of second language learning.
2.3.1 The History of Language Aptitude Test
The notion of ability testing was started about 4000 years ago when the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (Alshahrani, 2011).
When it comes to language aptitude, it was developed for the same
to develop a test called „prognosis tests‟ (Dörnyei, 2005).
Spolsky (1995) points out that even though those „prognosis tests‟ did
not have a theoretical foundation, but they had two methods that were used in developing language aptitude test, analytical and synthetic. Analytical
deals with learners‟ cognitive abilities, while synthetic concerns with learners‟ performance in second language or L2 (Dörnyei, 2005).
Nurdini, 2014 language aptitude test known as Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) in 1960s (Sparks & Ganschow, 2001). Those two aptitude tests (MLAT) and Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB). Robinson (2013) states that out of those two aptitude tests, the MLAT which was published by Carroll and Sapon in 1959 is the most well-known aptitude test and still uses quite frequently by many researchers in the field of second language development.
Carroll and Sapon (1959) explain that MLAT divided into five parts; they are Number Learning, Phonetic Script/Phonetic Sensitivity, Spelling Clues, Words in Sentences, and Paired Associates. Number Learning deals with short-term memories and „auditory alertness‟ and the language used in this part is an invented or „new‟ language (Dörnyei, 2005). The test takers will listen to the name of the numbers through a cassette tape (Carroll & Sapon, 1959 cited in Dörnyei, 2005).
Phonetic Script / Phonetic Sensitivity consists of some „nonsense
words‟ and the test takers are expected to match those words to its written forms which are available on the test page (Carroll & Sapon, 1959 cited in Dörnyei, 2005). Similar to Number Learning, the test takers will hear the
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Spelling Clues deals with finding the synonym or close-related meaning of the stimulus words based on the way those words is pronounced; Words in Sentences deals with measuring the grammatical sensitivity of the test takers who are expected to find out the words which have the same functions as the underlined words in the stimulus sentences; Paired Associate requires the test takers to memorize some words in a foreign language intact with English translation of the words (Robinson, 2013).
Before publishing their language aptitude test officially to public, Carroll and Sapon went through an experiment to make sure that the test was reliable. They state that:
Nurdini, 2014 Phonetic Coding, Grammatical Sensitivity, Rote Memory or Rote Learning, and Inductive Language Learning. Phonetic Coding can be defined as “an ability to distinct sound, to form associations between these sounds and
symbols representing them, and to retain these associations” (Carroll, 1981, p. 105). The ability requires L2 learners to pay more attention to “coding, assimilation, and remembering of phonetic material” (Dörnyei, 2005, p. 39). Grammatical Sensitivity is “the ability to recognize the grammatical
functions of words (or other linguistic entities) in sentences structures”
(Carroll, 1981, p. 105). Dörnyei (2005) points out that this ability focuses on
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called Language Analytic ability. Language Analytic ability also can be measured by Pimsleur – Language Aptitude Battery in section four which is is used to investigate the Grammatical Sensitivity (Carroll, 1990).
Carroll‟s ideas of language aptitude are considered as the most conditional sentences consist of if-clause and main clause (Thomson & Martinet, 1986). For example:
If it rains, I shall stay at home
Based on the example above which was created by Thomson & Martinet (1986), the sentence if it rains serves as the if-clause, while I shall stay at home serves as the main clause.
Nurdini, 2014 Table 2.2
Types of Conditional Sentences (Aitken, 1992)
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as their second language. Besides using the Modern Language Aptitude Test as
the main instruments for testing participants‟ aptitude, Winke also used phonological working memory test as well as questionnaire on motivation and strategy use. When it comes to the result of questionnaire on motivation and strategy, Winke stated that both had an equal impact.
A paper from Hummel (2007) revealed the relationship between aptitude, phonological memory (PM), and second language proficiency in non-novice English adult learners. The samples of his study were 77 French native speakers differences among second language learners in the context of French grammatical gender. 36 adult non-native French speakers volunteered to participate in her study. She used four main components of language aptitude to investigate the differences of awareness level on second language learners. MLAT was used to measure rote memory, grammatical sensitivity, and phonetic coding ability, while Part IV (Language Analysis) in Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) was used to measure inductive language learning. The result of the study showed that inductive language learning “predicted membership to the aware and unaware group accurately 72.22% of the time (Bell, 2008, p. 4). She also stated that inductive language learning played an important role on awareness of French grammatical gender.
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instruments. She analyzed the participants‟ progress in language proficiency after they had intensive English course in seven months. The result of the study implied that before the intensive course of English, language aptitude presented the positive correlation with English language proficiency ranging from .27 to .34. After seven months, the relationship of both variables remained steady since language aptitude did not affect the progress of English proficiency within that period of time.
Al-Khawalda (2013) investigated the interpretation of English conditional sentences as well as the reason behind the interpretation among Arabic native speakers. The result of his study stated that those who participated in the study, 100 Arabic native speakers, did not aware of the variation of English conditional sentences after analyzing ten sentences.
A thesis from Cheng (2005) identified the differences between English and Chinese conditional sentences syntactically and how the issue affects Chinese
native speakers‟ acquisition of English. After analyzing the data from 98 Chinese
native speakers who have participated in the study, the result revealed that “the acquisition order to syntactic complexity of the conditional sentences. On top of that, it is important to be aware of how L1 transfer effects interact with the
syntactic complexity factor in the ESL‟s production of English conditionals” (p.
2).
The previous studies elaborate how language aptitude relates to other components in second language learning. Therefore, this presents study attempts to find out the correlation between language aptitude and English second language
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CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This study attempts to find out the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. The methodology used to achieve the aim of the study is also elaborated in this chapter. It covers research design, site and subject of the study, data collection and instruments, data analysis, and clarification of key terms.
3.1 Research Design
This is a quantitative study because it deals with testing a hypothesis of the relationship between two or more variables. In order to investigate the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, this study used Pearson product – moment correlation coefficient, which is symbolized by lowercase r, as one of the statistical concepts. The formula of Pearson product moment correlation coefficient is presented in section 3.4.
Besides investigating the relationship between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, the study also investigates the relationship of language aptitude’s three constituent abilities with the learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. In doing so, the study uses multiple correlation formula since it uses to calculate more than two independent variables and one dependent variable, in this case is language aptitude as well as its constituent abilities as independent variables and English second language learners mastery of conditional sentences as dependent variable. The formula is presented in section 3.4.
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variables (Kranzler & Moursund, 1999). There is always a possibility that the value of correlation coefficient is 0.0 which means there is no relationship between two variables (Patel, 2009).
For multiple correlations which is symbolized by uppercase R, Bluman (2012) states that “The value of R can range from 0 to +1; R can never be negative” (p. 578). It means that if the value of R is closer to +1, then the correlation is stronger; if the value of R is closer to 0, then the correlation is weak (Bluman, 2012).
3.2 Site and Subject of the Study
Twenty students of a state university in Bandung from the Faculty of Language and Arts Education volunteered to involve in the study. They took English Language and Literature as their major in the University. Currently, they are from sophomore of grade 2012. The subject of the study consisted of 5 male students and 15 female students. The range of their ages is from 18 to 19 years old. They have studied English formally since they were in elementary school and then broaden their knowledge of the language in college by majoring in English Language and Literature.
3.3 Data Collection and Instruments
The data were collected by using two main instruments, the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) as the selected language aptitude test and test on conditional sentences in order to find out the English second language learners’ mastery of English conditional sentences.
3.3.1 The Modern Language Aptitude Test
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Phonetic Script (Part II), Spelling Clues (Part III), Words in Sentences (Part IV), and Paired Associate (Part V).
Table 3.1
The Modern Language Aptitude Test from Language Learning and Testing Foundation
Subtests Number of Questions
Number Learning 4
Phonetic Script 5
Spelling Clues 4
Words in Sentences 6
Paired Associates 6
Total 25
There were 25 questions in total. Part I consisted of 4 questions, Part II consisted of 5 questions, Part III consisted of 4 questions for each part, Part IV and Part V consisted of 6 questions for each. The samples of this study were expected to answer those questions within less than 20 minutes. The right answer of the test scored 1, while the wrong answer scored 0.
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The Measurements of Carroll’s Language Aptitude Components based on the MLAT’s Subtests (Carroll, 1990)
Carroll’s constituent abilities in Carroll’s language aptitude theory, but the measurement for the ability is not included in the Modern Language Aptitude Test since the ability was quite difficult to measure when the MLAT was developed for the first time in 1950s (Carroll, 1980).
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The test consisted of 10 essays and 10 matching exercises regarding conditional sentences in various types which have been stated in Chapter II. The questions were gathered from ESLibrary.com. The given time to answers the entire questions on the test was 20 minutes. The form of the test was written test. Each participant collected 1 point for giving the right answer, while the wrong answer caused them in getting no point.
Table 3.3
Test on Conditional Sentences
Types of Conditional Sentences Number of Questions
Zero Conditional 3
First Conditional 4
Second Conditional 6
Third Conditional 7
Total 20
3.4 Data Analysis
In order to find the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, the study went through several procedures to analyze the data. Gathering the data from both the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) and test on conditional sentences was the first step to do in the study. Secondly, the study calculated the sum of both MLAT and the test. MLAT as the selected language aptitude test presented as X variable, while the second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences presented as Y variable.
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The Absolute Value of r Interpretation
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symbolized by lowercase r2 can be defined as “the percent of the variation in the values of the dependent variable (Y) that can be "explained" by variations in the value of the independent variable (X)” (Taylor, 1990, p. 3). To obtain coefficient of determination, the study adopted the formula as follow:
CD = r2.100% Where:
CD = coefficient of determination. r2 = the obtained square of r
Calculating the significance of the correlation between X and Y variables was useful in order to give the study an idea of how far the relationship of those variables which was stated in the study. The study then created two possible hypotheses as the first step of defining the significance of the correlation between X and Y variables, they were H0: ρ = 0 which means there is no relationship
between X and Y variable or it can be called as null hypothesis and H1= ρ 0
which means there is a possibility that relationship and the value of statistic is either greater or lower than 0. The Greek symbol of ρ (rho) represents the true correlation coefficient.
In order to figure out the significance of correlation coefficient, the study had to find the standardized t statistic for r by using the following formula:
√
Where:
t = standardized t statistic or t score. r = the value of correlation.
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To find out the correlation of all language aptitude’s three constituent abilities and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences, the study employs the formula of multiple correlations. The formula is:
R =
√
Where:
ryx1 = the value of the correlation coefficient for variables y and x1.
ryx2 = the value of the correlation coefficient for variables y and x2.
rx1x2 = the value of the correlation coefficient for variables x1 and x2
According to Bluman (2012), the value of R is always higher compared to the value of individual correlation coefficient. He (2012) also states that the value of R “can never be negative” (p. 578). Table 3.5 below presents the interpretation of R.
Table 3.5
The Value of R (Punithavalli & Sharmi, 2013)
The Value of R Interpretation
0.51 – 1.00 Strong association
0.26 – 0.50 Moderate association
0.00 – 0.25 Weak association
In order to figure out the significance of multiple correlations, the study used an F test for R by using the following formula:
F = ⁄
Where:
R2 = squared R.
n = the number of data groups.
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The result of those measurements was presented to answer the research question regarding the correlation between language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences. The correlation of three language aptitude components (Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity) and the learners’ mastery of conditional sentences were also investigated by using the same formulas. Furthermore, after concluding the result of the analysis, the suggestions for future studies were provided.
3.5 Clarification of Key Terms
In order to avoid any misunderstanding and misconception in the study, there are some clarified terms that commonly used in the study:
Second Language
Second language is the language in addition to one’s first language, although the language may be the third language and so on, to be applied (Saville-Troike, 2006). In this case, the second language refers to another language that acquired by the learners in the study.
Language Aptitude.
Language aptitude can be called “language learning ability” (Dörnyei, 2005, p. 32). Aptitude itself can be defined as “capacity that enhances the rate and ease of learning” (Carrol, 1981, cited in Ellis, 1994, p. 495).
The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT).
An instrument designed to measure aptitude for foreign language learning in high school, college, and adult populations (McGuire & Scott, 2005, p. 2).
Conditional sentences.
Conditional sentences can be explained as “a two-clause sentence in which the first clause states a supposition or hypothesis and the second clause states the results if that condition is met” (Elliott, 2006, p. 4).
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CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter contains findings gathered after analyzing the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. The analysis included analyzing the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences by using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. The next steps were analyzing the coefficient of determination and level of significance for both variables. Furthermore, the study also analyzed the correlation of language aptitude‟s three constituent abilities such as Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity with the result of the test on conditional sentences for the learners.
4.1 The Correlation of Language Aptitude and English Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Conditional Sentences
4.1.1 Score Tabulation
This study used two main instruments; the first was the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) to measure the English second language learners‟ aptitude, while the second one was test on conditional sentences which was used to measure the second language learners‟ mastery of English conditional sentences. The MLAT consisted of five parts and 25 questions in total. As mentioned in Chapter III, Part I consisted of 4 questions, Part II consisted of 5 questions, Part III consisted of 4 questions for each part, Part IV and Part V consisted of 6 questions for each. One point was given for every right answer, while the wrong answer scored zero.
Nurdini, 2014 constituent abilities of language aptitude are presented in Appendix II.
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4.1.2 Preliminary Data Analysis: Descriptive Statistics
The descriptive analysis is given to provide information regarding two variables in the study. The information includes standard deviation (SD), sample variance, range, minimum and maximum score. Along with the descriptive statistics, this chapter also provides information regarding the measurements which are needed in this study. As mentioned in Chapter III, the study used language aptitude test, which is called the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), and test on conditional sentences for 20 students who were willing to volunteer for the study.
Table 4.1
Descriptive Statistics (N = 20)
Variables Items Points Mean Standard Deviation
(SD) Sample Variance Maximum Minimum
Language Aptitude
25 25 16.2 2.38 5.64 22 12
Rote Memory
10 10 9.7 0.66 0.43 10 8
Phonetic Coding
9 9 2.8 1.54 2.39 7 0
Grammatical
Sensitivity 6 6 3.85 1.57 2.45 6 0
Conditional
As shown in the Table 4.1, the mean of language aptitude which measured by the Modern Language Aptitude test is 16.2 (SD = 2.38), which is 64.8% of the total score (25), while the mean for test on conditional sentences is 11.23 (SD = 1.77), which was 56.15% of the total score (20). The sample variance of the data ranged from 0.43 to 5.64.
In MLAT, there are five main parts in which the test takers are expected to answer. Part I [Number Learning] and Part V [Paired Associate] were used to measure the test takers‟ memory, in this case is called Rote Memory. Part II [Phonetic Script] and Part III [Spelling Clues] were used to measure the test takers‟ Phonetic Coding ability, while Part IV which is called Words in Sentences was used to measure the test takers‟ sensitivity of grammatical concept or in this case is called Grammatical Sensitivity.
4.1.3 Language Aptitude and English Second Language Learners’ Mastery
of Conditional Sentences
Figure 4.1 The Scatter Plot of MLAT and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20)
From the figure above, it is shown that there is a linear relationship between language aptitude which is represented by horizontal axis (variable X) and English L2 learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is 0.35, it means the relationship reflects a weak positive relationship.
that the value of R of language aptitude and Rote Memory with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is 0.62. The result emphasizes that the two independent variables and the learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences defines a strong relationship since the value of R is closer to 1 (Bluman, 2012).
To see whether Rote Memory employs linear relationship with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences, the figure 4.2 below explains the scatter diagram or best fit-line for a linier relationship. The diagram is based on the scores of Rote Memory, which can be measured by using Part I [Number Learning] and Part V [Paired Associates] in the Modern Language Aptitude Test, and test on conditional sentences.
Figure 4.2The scatter plot of Rote Memory and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20)
conditional sentences taken by the samples of this study. Through the figure above, it appears that the relationship or the association of both variables is linear negative.
4.1.3.2 Phonetic Coding
Another constituent ability in language aptitude which is investigated in the study is Phonetic Coding. It can be measured by Part II [Phonetic Script] and Part III [Spelling Clues] in the Modern Language Aptitude Test [MLAT]. Similar to Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding and language aptitude are two independent variables (X1 and X2), while English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is dependent variable (Y).
In accordance to the formula of multiple correlations, the value of R of language aptitude and Phonetic Coding with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is 0.55. Looking at the obtained R of the investigated variables, it appears that there is a strong association between investigated variables. A strong association ranges from 0.51 to 1.00 (Punithavalli & Sharmi, 2013). The value of R of language aptitude and Phonetic Coding with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is also closer to 1.00, so it means the association is stronger (Bluman, 2012).
Figure 4.3The scatter plot of Phonetic Coding and Test on Conditional
Sentences (N = 20)
Based on the figure above, it is shown that there is a linear relationship between Phonetic Coding which is represented by horizontal axis (variable X) and English L2 learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences which is represented by vertical axis (variable Y). The dots of the scatter plot defines the distribution of of both variables was linear negative.
4.1.3.3 Grammatical Sensitivity
ranges from 0.51 to 1.00 (Punithavalli & Sharmi, 2013). The value of R of language aptitude and Grammatical Sensitivity with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is also closer to 1.00, so it means the association is stronger (Bluman, 2013).
To see whether Grammatical Sensitivity employs linear relationship with English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences, the figure 4.4 below explains the scatter diagram or best fit-line for a linier relationship. The diagram is based on the scores of Grammatical Sensitivity and test on conditional sentences.
Figure 4.4The scatter plot of Grammatical Sensitivity and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20)
the samples of this study. Through the figure above, it can be concluded that the relationship or the association of both variables is linear positive.
Compared to the two other constituent abilities (Rote Memory and Phonetic Coding), Grammatical Sensitivity has the strongest correlation to English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. It is expected since the study also dealt with the concept of conditional sentences which is one of the important subjects in comprehending English grammar. Grammatical Sensitivity itself in Carroll‟s language aptitude theory is “the ability to recognize the grammatical functions of words (or other linguistic entities) in sentences structures” (Carroll, 1981, p. 105).
4.1.4 Coefficient of Determination of Language Aptitude and English
Second Language Learners’ Mastery of Conditional Sentences
Coefficient of determination can be defined as “the percent of the variation in the values of the dependent variable (Y) that can be „explained‟ by variations in the value of the independent variable (X)” (Taylor, 1990, p. 37). To put it simply, coefficient of determination determines the degree of contribution of variable X to variable Y. Coefficient of determination (r2) can be obtained by squaring the obtained r (Taylor, 1990).
4.1.5 Level of Significance
Level of significance in a correlation is used to indicate “that the observed sample data provides ample evidence to reject the null hypothesis that the population correlation coefficient parameter (rho) is zero thereby concluding that the population correlation coefficient is not equal to zero” correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is statistically significant. After calculating the result by using the formula of the standardized t statistic for
the relationship between the two variables is statistically significant. While using the same hypothesis, Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity used an F test for R by employing the formula in Chapter III. Choosing the 0.05 level of significance for two tailed test with 18 degree of freedom numerator (d.f.N) and 17 degree of freedom dominator (d.f.D), the study investigates whether there is a significant correlation among investigated variables.
result of F test is larger than 0, the null hypothesis (H0) can be rejected and
the alternative hypothesis can be accepted. It can be concluded that there is significant relationship among language aptitude, Rote Memory, and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. It also applies to Phonetic Coding (F = 3.78) and Grammatical Sensitivity (F = 9.98).
4.2 Chapter Summary
Using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, it was found that the correlation of language aptitude and English second language learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is 0.35. The study also investigates three constituent abilities of language aptitude, which include Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity, with the learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences. The formula used is the multiple correlation formula.
The result of the study shows that the multiple correlation of language aptitude and Grammatical Sensitivity, as two independent variables, and the learners‟ mastery of conditional sentences is 0.73, which is stronger compared to Rote Memory (R = 0.62) and Phonetic Coding (R = 0.55). Furthermore, the related variables in the study also indicate a significant correlation to each other.
Table 4.2 The Multiple Correlation of Language Aptitude and its Three Constituent Abilities with conditional sentences
The Multiple Correlation with
Conditional Sentences
Language Aptitude
Rote Memory Phonetic Coding Grammatical Sensitivity
R 0.62 0.55 0.73
F* 5.31 3.78 9.98
* H0: ρ = 0; H1= ρ 0 (two tailed), choosing .05 level of significance with d.f.N: 18 and
d.f.D: 17; F = 2.01
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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS
This chapter presents the conclusion of the paper. The conclusion focuses on the answer of the research question as the result of the study. Moreover, this chapter also presents the suggestions for future research in the field of second language acquisition, in particular language aptitude.
5.1 Conclusion
The study has been investigated the relationship or the correlation between
language aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional
sentences. In order to measure the learners’ language aptitude or language learning ability, this study used the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) which was developed by Carroll and Sapon. Furthermore, the learners’ mastery of conditional sentences is measured by using test on conditional sentences.
By adopting Pearson product moment correlation coefficient to investigate
the correlation between language aptitude and English L2 learners’ mastery of
conditional sentences, the study shows that there is a weak positive relationship between the two variables (r = .35). The standardized t statistic of language
aptitude and English second language learners’ mastery of conditional sentences
indicates a significant relationship of the two variables. Moreover, language
aptitude as variable X contributed 12% to English second language learners’
mastery of conditional sentences.
Besides calculating the correlation of language aptitude and the learners’
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Coding (R = 0.55), the value of R of Grammatical Sensitivity is the strongest with 0.73.
5.2 Suggestions
In order to enrich the knowledge of language aptitude which can be used as
measurement in learners’ language learning success, it is suggested that for future
studies to investigate the development of language aptitude and its relation to
other components, such as English second language learners’ level of proficiency or learners’ attitude toward the language.
There are many language aptitude tests to use in the field of this study.
Since Carroll and Sapon’s language aptitude test does not measure one of language aptitude abilities called Inductive Language Learning, it is better to investigate the ability by using another tool such as Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery since section four in the test called Language Analysis can be used to measure the ability.
Language aptitude as a part of psycholinguistics aspect is useful for further research in the field of psycholinguistics. Besides language aptitude, there are many theories which can be used as a tool in a research regarding psycholinguistics which are very useful to be investigated further. Another theory of psycholinguistics will also help the research to be more aware of language
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APPENDIX I
Scores of the Modern Language Aptitude Test and Test on Conditional Sentences (N = 20)
Subject MLAT Conditional Sentences
Subject 1 15 13
Subject 2 15 12
Subject 3 16 8
Subject 4 12 6
Subject 5 14 13
Subject 6 19 12.5
Subject 7 15 12.5
Subject 8 16 12
Subject 9 18 10.5
Subject 10 16 11
Subject 11 22 11.5
Subject 12 20 12
Subject 13 15 10
Subject 14 15 11
Subject 15 18 13
Subject 16 17 13
Subject 17 14 11
Subject 18 18 11
Subject 19 15 10
Subject 20 14 11.5
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APPENDIX II
Scores of Rote Memory, Phonetic Coding, and Grammatical Sensitivity
(N = 20)
Subject
Constituent Abilities of Language Aptitude Rote Memory Phonetic Coding Grammatical
Sensitivity
Subject 1 8 3 4
Subject 2 9 1 5
Subject 3 10 4 2
Subject 4 10 2 0
Subject 5 9 2 3
Subject 6 10 5 4
Subject 7 8 2 6
Subject 8 10 2 4
Subject 9 10 3 5
Subject 10 10 3 3
Subject 11 10 7 5
Subject 12 10 4 6
Subject 13 10 4 1
Subject 14 10 3 4
Subject 15 10 3 5
Subject 16 10 2 5
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Subject 18 10 3 5
Subject 19 10 2 3
Subject 20 10 1 3
Total 194 56 77
APPENDIX III
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TEST ON LANGUAGE APTITUDE AND CONDITIONAL SENTENCES
A. Test on Language Aptitude
1. Part I [Number Learning]
Question 1-4
You will learn the names of numbers in a new language. Subsequently, you will hear the names of numbers spoken aloud, and you will be asked to write down these numbers. For example, if you heard someone say the number “seventeen” in English, you would write down 1 7. But in this test, you will hear the numbers in a new language.
After listening to the instruction, write down your answer within five second: 1.
2. 3. 4.
2. Part II [Phonetic Script]
Question 5-9
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Sample: JOHN took a long walk in the woods.
Children in blue jeans were singing and dancing in the park.
A B C D E
You would select “A.” because the key sentence is about “John” and the second
sentence is about “children”. Now, let’s begin with the questions:
