CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Vocabulary
1. Definition of Vocabulary
In order to be able to communicate in every language, the most influencing thing that should be remembered is how many words someone has in their head. So is in English. Vocabulary is an essential part in learning English, despite the fact of difficulties that many learners face in mastering it.
In Oxford Learner’s Pocket dictionary, vocabulary is list of words
with their meanings, especially in a book for learning a foreign language. According to Harmer in Widyasari (2010), vocabulary is a powerful carrier of meaning. Meanwhile, Hatch and Brown in Ratnawati (2013:24) state that vocabulary refers to a list or a set of words that individual speakers of language might use. In addition, Richek in Ratnawati (2013:24) states that the students will have difficulty in learning English at school without having adequate vocabulary.
sentence or situation. As Ying He (2010:11) states that vocabulary is broadly defined as knowledge of words, including explanations of word meanings, while a word is briefly described as a sound or a combination of sounds, or its representation in writing or printing that symbolizes and communicates a meaning.
2. Types of Vocabulary
Hatch & Brown (1995:368) say that vocabulary learning are often divided between intentional learning and incidental learning. They defined intentional learning as being designed, planned for, or intended by teacher or student. While incidental learning is defined as the type of learning that is a byproduct of doing or learning something else.
According to Nasr in Widyasari (2010), The learner’s vocabulary is also divided into two main areas, active and passive. Sometimes they called productive and receptive vocabulary. An important consideration for teacher planning vocabulary work is the distinction between productive and receptive vocabulary (Scrivener in Widyasari, 2010). The clear differences between productive and receptive vocabulary will be seen the function of the using vocabulary. The productive vocabulary is used for oral skill, and receptive vocabulary is used just for comprehending.
active vocabulary is ordinarily more difficult than merely learning to recognize (Mullen in Widyasari, 2010). Learner must choose a word that appropriate in the situation when they speak in English. Therefore, it is useful to know the differences between them.
a. Receptive Vocabulary
Receptive vocabulary is the set of words that we recognize and understand, but tend not to use ourselves (Scrivener in Widyasari 2010). Receptive vocabulary sometimes called passive vocabulary, it is a word that a person understands when he hears or reads them but does not use in his own speech (Nasr in Widyasari, 2010). In addition receptive vocabulary is the words those they will need merely to comprehend, especially in their reading (Harris in Widyasari, 2010). Receptive vocabulary is the word which is used in reading and writing skill.
Learner’s receptive vocabulary is useful in understanding what
the learner have heard and what they have read. If the learner has much receptive vocabulary, they understand what the text talking about.
b. Productive Vocabulary
the learner use frequently and naturally in learner’s writing and
speaking (Mullen in Widyasari, 2010). Productive vocabulary is the words which are used in speaking and writing skill.
An active vocabulary is more difficult to be learned than a passive vocabulary. The learner must be able to choose the word which is appropriate with the situation. Therefore, the learner must be an extra effort to learn an active or productive vocabulary.
3. Vocabulary Learning
As cited by Hatch & Brown (1995:373), Brown and Payne (1994) did an analysis and mention five essential steps in vocabulary learning. Those are:
a. Encountering new words
The first essential step for vocabulary learning is encountering new words, or having a source for words. The student strategies here included learning new words by reading books, listening to TV and radio, and reading newspapers and magazines.
b. Getting the word form
c. Getting the word meaning
The third essential step is the one which is most often associated with the idea of vocabulary learning: getting the word meaning. In this step, learner have to find the word meaning in various ways, such as asking native English speakers what words mean, asking people who speak their native language the meaning of the words, making pictures of word meanings in their mind, or explaining what they mean and asking someone to tell me the English word.
d. Consolidating word form and meaning in memory
The next step is to consolidate word form and its meaning in memory. Learner will do many kinds of vocabulary learning drills, such as flashcards, matching exercises, crossword puzzles, etc., to strengthen the form-meaning connection.
e. Using the word
The final step in learning words is using the words.
Beside the learning steps above, Edwards in Widyasari (2010) had made a list of efficient way to improve vocabulary, they are:
a. Be aware of words
b. Reading
Reading can help to find new and interesting words. Read new magazines, books and newspapers. Identify the words that you don’t
know and write them down. c. Use dictionaries
Use the dictionary dictionaries to look up the meaning of the words that you find while reading for pleasure and for school. It can be a basic reference tool when the learner using words in doing the task.
d. Use index cards to study
Learner should write the new word on an index card. Then write the definition and a sentence using the word on the back of the card. Carry these card wherever the learner go.
e. Review vocabulary words regularly
Keep the index cards, and study them although just a few spare minutes. The words that have written in index card must be bring in every where. So the learner can read the words although just a few minutes.
f. Try vocabulary–building books
g. Use the words
Other activities that will help build the learner vocabulary are using the words in conversation. The use of words in daily conversation can help the students in using the words spontaneously in speaking ability.
B. Learning Strategies
1. Definition of Learning Strategies
Cohen in Doczi (2011:139) defines learning strategies as “learning processes which are consciously selected by the learner” and goes on to
say that they must be processes that the language learner is at least partially conscious of, although he does not necessarily need to give full attention to them. In addition, strategies are used prior to, during, or after language performance in order to enhance the use and the learning of a second or a foreign language.
According to Weinstein and Mayer’s study (as cited in Riankamol,
2008), learning strategies (LS) have been broadly defined as “behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning” which are “intended to influence the learner's encoding process.” Later Mayer’s
One of the researchers in this field, Rubin (as cited in Riankamol, 2008) explains a very extensive definition of learning strategies as “the techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquir knowledge”.
Within the area of foreign language research, a number of studies indicate that learning strategies play a significant role in successful language learning (Ling Wu, 2008:76). Politzer and McGroarty in Ling Wu (2008:76) claimed that learning strategies are positively associated with language acquisition. They may improve learners’ learning in the
forms and functions which are required for comprehension and production (Rubin in Ling Wu, 2008:76). Moreover, learners utilize learning strategies to aid the acquisition, storage, or retrieval of information (Rigney in Ling Wu, 2008:76).
Learning strategies have been defined by several researchers. O’Malley, J. & Chamot, A. in Ling Wu (2008:76) state that learning
2. Types of Learning Strategies
Learning strategies are typically grouped into three categories, that is, cognitive, metacognitive and socioaffective (Chamot & Küpper, 1989; O’Malley, Chamot, & Küpper, 1989; O’Malley, Chamot, Stewner
-Manzanares, Küpper, & Russo, 1985 in Ling Wu, 2008:77). Cognitive strategies are behaviors, techniques, or actions used by learners to facilitate the acquisition of knowledge or a skill (Derry & Murphy, 1986; Rubin, 1987 in Ling Wu, 2008:77). Metacognitive strategies are management techniques by which learners control their learning process via planning, monitoring, evaluating, and modifying their learning approaches (Rubin in Ling Wu, 2008:77). Socioaffective strategies include asking for clarification, repeating, imitating, circumlocuting, cooperating, and engaging in private speech (Hall in Ling Wu, 2008:77).
a. Memory strategies
Memory strategies are techniques that help learners store and retrieve new information, e.g., creating mental linkages, applying images and sounds, reviewing in a structured way, etc.
b. Cognitive strategies
Cognitive strategies are skills or steps that involve direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of the target language, such as formal practice with sounds or structures, functional practice in natural interactions, reasoning, translating, analyzing, note-taking, etc.
c. Compensation strategies
Compensation strategies are those that enable learners to make up their missing knowledge in the process of comprehending or producing the target language, such as guessing wisely in listening and reading, using gestures, switching to the native language, and using a synonym or description in order to get the meaning across in speaking or writing.
d. Metacognitive strategies
e. Affective strategies
Affective strategies are those strategies that help learners gain control over their emotions, attitudes, and motivations related to language learning. Such strategies include encouraging oneself through positive self-talk, talking with someone about your feelings about learning the target language, etc.
f. Social strategies
Social strategies are actions that involve other people, such as asking questions, cooperating with others, and becoming aware of others’ thoughts and feelings.
C. Vocabulary Learning Strategies
1. Definition of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Rubin (1987), as cited in Doczi (2011:139), defines lexical strategies a “the process by which information is obtained, stored, retrieved, and
used”.
Takač in Doczi (2011:140) explains that VLS are “specific strategies utilised in the isolated task of learning vocabulary in the target language”
and adds that learners could, in fact, use them in any other field of language learning. He also points to four characteristics of VLS (1) require selection on the learners’ part, (2) exhibit complexity and
can further develop through instruction, and (4) make learning and using vocabulary in L2 more efficient.
Nation in Riankamol (2008:10) makes clear that vocabulary learning strategies are one part of language learning strategies which in turn are part of general learning strategies.
2. The Importance of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Penha in Kaya & Charkova (2014:123) points out that no reading, writing, speaking, listening, or literature-based activity discussion can be conducted with learners without providing them with the conventional vocabulary to perform the activity. Because all language skills are dependent upon vocabulary (Nation, 1990; Pehna, 2006 in Kaya & Charkova, 2014:123), teaching vocabulary and vocabulary learning strategies becomes a must. Nirattisai and Chiramanee in Kaya & Charkova (2014:123) invite language teachers to heed vocabulary learning strategies and the importance of the strategies in order to encourage students to use these strategies because “the use of vocabulary
learning strategies can lead students to large vocabulary size” (Nirattisai
& Chiramanee in Kaya & Charkova, 2014:123).
Based on Ostovar-Namaghi & Malekpur (2015:238), the breadth and depth of learners’ vocabulary depends on their mastery and use of
vocabulary learning stratigies. It’s believed that vocabulary learning
a. Make learners more independent of the teacher and serve as useful tools that can be used both inside and outside of the class (Oxford and Scarcella in Ostovar-Namaghi & Malekpur, 2015:238).
b. Add to the acquisition of vocabulary through extensive reading; they
lead to increased retention of the new vocabulary and increased availability of these items for active use (Gu and Johnson in Ostovar-Namaghi & Malekpur, 2015:238).
c. Enable learners to take more control of their own learning so that students can take more responsibility for their studies (Nation, Scharle & Szabó in Ostovar-Namaghi & Malekpur, 2015:238). d. Foster learner autonomy, independence, and self-direction (Oxford
& Nyikos in Ostovar-Namaghi & Malekpur, 2015:238).
e. Simplify the learning process of new vocabulary for students (Ranalli in Ostovar-Namaghi & Malekpur, 2015:238).
f. Prove useful for students of different language levels (Nation in Ostovar-Namaghi & Malekpur, 2015:238).
3. Strategies in Learning Vocabulary
Discovery strategies contains determination and social strategies, while consolidation strategies contains cognitive, metacognitive, memory and social strategies.
Discussing it a little further, those strategies can be explained as below (Schmitt, 1997:13).
a. Discovery Strategies
1) Determination Strategies
Determination Strategies facilitate learners in gaining knowledge of a new word by guessing from their structural knowledge of the language. Learners may be able to classify the new word's part of speech, which can help in the guessing process. They can also obtain hints about meaning from its root or affixes, although not always reliably.
If the target L2 is closely related to a learner's L1, cognates can be an excellent resource for both guessing the meaning of and remembering new words. Cognates are words in different languages which have descended from a common parent word, such as Mutter in German and mother in English.
from textual context refers to inferring a word's meaning from the surrounding words in a written text.
Another way of initially finding a word's meaning is through reference materials, primarily dictionaries whether it’s bilingual dictionaries or monolingual dictionaries. Word lists can also be very useful for initial exposures to a new word.
2) Social Strategies
A second way to discover a new meaning employs the Social Strategy of asking someone who knows. Teachers are often in this position, and they can be asked to give help in a variety of ways: giving the L1 translation if they know it, giving a synonym, giving a definition by paraphrase, using the new word in a sentence, or any combination of these.
b. Consolidation Strategies
1) Social Strategies
learning outside of class. Interacting with native-speakers would also be an excellent way to gain vocabulary.
2) Memory Strategies
Most Memory Strategies involve relating new material to existing knowledge, using some form of imagery, or grouping. A new word can be integrated into many kinds of existing knowledge (ie. previous experiences or known words).
New words can be learned by studying them with pictures of their meaning instead of definitions. Alternatively, learners can create their own mental images of a word's meaning. Imagery has been shown to be more effective than mere repetition for reading passages and sentences (Steingart and Glock in Schmitt, 1997:18).
New words can also be linked to L2 words which the student already knows. Usually this involves some type of sense relationship, such as coordination (apple→other kinds of fruit like pears, cherries, or peaches), synonym (irritated→annoyed), or antonym (dead→alive).
animals first, before moving on to another category like names (Bousfield in Schmitt, 1997:19).
3) Cognitive Strategies
Cognitive Strategies in this taxonomy are similar to Memory Strategies, but are not focused so specifically on manipulative mental processing; they include repetition and using mechanical means to study vocabulary. Written and verbal repetition, repeatedly writing or saying a word over and over again, are common strategies in many parts of the world.
Word lists and flash cards can be used for the initial exposure to a word, but most students continue to use them to review it afterwards. Another kind of cognitive strategy is using study aids, like taking notes in class. Students can also make use of any special vocabulary sections in their textbooks to help them study target words. Students who prefer a more aural approach to learning can make a tape recording of word lists (or any other vocabulary material) and study by listening.
4) Metacognitive Strategies
considered a Metacognitive Strategy if it is used as a controlling principle of language learning. Testing oneself gives input into the effectiveness of one's choice of learning strategies, providing positive reinforcement if progress is being made or a signal to switch strategies if it is not.
There are many strategies that can be used by student in learning vocabulary outside from the lists above. Sometimes, they have their own way in learning without even realizing it as a strategy since it was a habit of them. By discovering other strategies, student can expand their vocabulary more.
