STUDIES ON CERAM ICS
C opyright
Pusat Penelitian Arke ologi Nasional 1 9 8 4
E ditoria l Board
Advisor Chief editor Members
R.P. Soejono Satyawati Suleiman Soejatmi Satari
Nies A. Subagus
F O R E W O R D
The Ceramics Seminar, held in Jakarta f r o m 3 - 7 September 1979 was t h e first o f its k i n d in Indonesia. It was attended by specialists f r o m
Indonesian Institutes, the Ceramic Society and by scholars f r o m abroad. Present were participants f r o m the University of the Philippines, the Uni-versity of Hawaii, the Chinese UniUni-versity of Hongkong, the National
Museum of Singapore and the M u z i u m Negara o f Malaysia.
Ceramics, namely the "local ceramics" or earthenware and the " f o r e i g n cerami cs" are f o u n d on nearly every archaeological site, classical o r prehistoric. Foreign ceramics f o u n d on sites are considered t o be of great importance for the dating o f the sites. As research on ceramics is still rare in Indonesia, it is hoped t h a t by holding this k i n d o f seminar several problems can be tackled together.
The Board o f Editors has taken the liberty t o edit the papers f o r technical reasons by carrying o u t some alterations and abbreviations. It is hoped that this publ i cati on w i l l be useful for archaeologists and in particular for those w h o specialize in the study of ceramics and earthen-ware.
C O N T E N T S
Page
F o r e w o r d v
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f T o p o n y m s f r o m Chinese Sources in Relation to Chinese Ceramics Finds
Satyawati Suleiman 1
The Classification of Pottery f r o m G i l i m a n u k , Bali
Santoso Sugondho 13
Decorated Pottery f r o m the South Coast of Java Between Pacitan and Cilacap
Goenadi Nitihaminoto 21
A Preliminary Study on the Local Ceramics of Tro-w u l a n
Sri Soejatmi Safari 41
Preliminary ReDort on the Trade Ceramics Found in Warloka, West Flores
Abu Ridho 49
Further Notes on the Classification of Ceramics f r o m the Excavation o f Kota Cina
Hasan Muarif Ambary 61
Classification o f Pottery f r o m O l d Banten, West Java
Wiwin Djuwita 73
Preliminary Notes on the Classification of The Ceramics Excavated at Banten in 1976 and 1977
Heriyanti Ongkodharma 83
Japanese Porcelain f r o m the Seventeenth Century Found in Indonesia
Sumarah Adhyatman, David Rehfuss, Hitoshi Shindo 93
Notes o n the T r a d i t i o n o f Pottery Making in the Region o f Kasongan, Regency o f Bantu I, Yogyakarta
Notes on Pottery Making of Berru, Cabbenge, South Sulawesi
R.P. Soejono 127
Southeast Asian Prehistoric Pottery
Wi/helm G. So/beim I! 131
Evidences o f Cultural Patterning as seen through Pottery: The Philippine Si tuati on
Rosa CP. Tenazas 155
The Influence of Trade Pottery on Some Aspects of Phi-lippines Cul ture, A Preliminary Study
Aurora Roxas — Lim 177
T h e Dating o f Chinese Ceramics and Archaeological Sites in South-East Asia (A Preliminary draft)
J. C. Y. Watt • 187
A n A c c o u n t of the Maritime Trade Routes, Between Southeast Asia and China
Grace Wong 201
Foreign Ceramics Discovered in Peninsular Malaysia
Othman bin Mohd. Yatim 215
I D E N T I F I C A T I O N OF T O P O N Y M S F R O M C H I N E S E .'SOURCES I N R E L A T I O N T O C H I N E S E C E R A M I C S F I N D S
Satyawati Suleiman
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
National Research Centre of Archaeology (Indonesia )
I n t r o d u c t i o n
T o p o n y m s of towns and countries in the Indonesian Archipelago have for centuries been a subject of much dispute. Scholars tried t o locate ancient ports, by reading the Chinese records, by using geogra-phical, geological or linguistic reasoning. A t present however, more interest is paid to datable objects other than ancient monuments or inscriptions and statues, namely ceramic sherds. Ceramic objects f o u n d on the surface or used as heirlooms have long been an object of study. However, as ceramics, just as bronzes are easily movable goods, one does not k n o w their date of arrival f r o m China. For example a T'ang jarlet c o u l d have been obtained in the 19th century through dealers, or a Sung vase could be dug up f r o m the grounds of a c o m p o u n d f o r m e r l y owned by a collector.
It is di fferent of course if these ceramic objects are f o u n d in great numbers on the same spot. We then t h i n k of ancient settlements. Ar-chaeological studies f o r m e r l y pre-occupied w i t h the religious activities o f kings are nowadays more focussed on the life of the people, their artifacts, the ways indigenous and foreign ceramics are used etc.
Sumatra
T r y i n g to locate ancient ports or capitals, the t o p o n y m s o f w h i c h appeared in Chinese records have since recently become a challenge for the archaeologists. The location of Srivijaya for example is a case in point. Diggings carried o u t in 1973 and 1974 led t o the conclusion that the absence of Chinese porcelain sherds in the Palembang area, meant that it was not the site of the ancient capital (Bronson, 1974).
w e n t t o India n o t o n l y f o r religious purposes b u t also t o study architec. ture and sculpture. T h e y returned t o Indonesia w i t h their n e w l y acquired
knowledge and silpasastras.
J a v a
The first t i m e Java (Ye-p'o-ti) was mentioned in a Chinese source was in the 5 t h c e n t u r y when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsiert^landed there, as his ship had been b l o w n o f f the normal route after it had left Sri Ian ka. Thus Fa-Hsien c o u l d n o t have sailed through Strait Malacca as this was the normal route and besides, Fa Hsien was tal ki ng about a f r i g h t f u l bottomless sea w h i c h coul d not be the Straits, as even in those days, there were already ships, and the sea was so shallow in certain parts t h a t foreign navigators were forced to make use of local pilots. Also f o r the sake' o f security of course otherwise t h e y w o u l d be attacked by sea-gypsies w h o considered these waters as their p r o p e r t y .
Some scholars t h i n k that there was no route between Sumatra and West Java in ancient times as geologically these t w o islands were still connected between Banten and Lampung. But ships are not necessary sailing f r o m Srilangka or Tamral i pti t o China. It is acceptable that a ship comi ng f r o m an Indian port stopped at an Indonesian port or Kedah, where the passengers had t o embark on another ship. For example l-ching on his return f r o m India, after having left T a m r a l i p t i , reached Kedah, w h i c h was already p r o p e r t y of Srivijaya. There he had t o wait several m o n t h s f o r a ship Coming f r o m Srivijaya w h i c h had t o bring him t o Ma-layu and then Srivijaya. Fa Hsien c o u l d have stopped at a p o r t in Banten or Lampung, crossed an isthmus and boarded another ship.
Thus foreigners had t o board ships owned by Indonesian kings or seagypsies w h i c h was much safer as t h e y were under their p r o t e c t i o n . In one A r a b record of a much later date than l-Tsing's records it was said t h a t foreign ships had t o t o u c h t h e p o r t o f Sriwijaya, if n o t , ships w o u l d come o u t t o sea and attack t h e m . Thus the straits o f Malacca was not open sea b u t considered as a k i n d o f chanel owned by the kings o f Su-matra and the Malay Peninsula. Thus Fa Hsien coul d n o t have sailed t h r o u g h the straits o f Malacca, f o r his ships w o u l d have been attacked and steered t o some p o r t in the straits. Ye-p'o-ti was inhabited by Brah-mins and heretic BrahBrah-mins, (Pasupatas, the non-orthodox Hindus w h o spread Hinduism t o an non-Indian populations) b u t t h e Buddhist Dharma was n o t yet w o r t h m e n t i o n i n g , according t o Fa-Hsien. On his way t o China he m e n t i o n e d the other passengers many o f ^ w h i c h were " B r a h -m i n s " . (Wolters, 1977, o n Pasupatas). He -might have -meant Indonesian Hi ndus, as in t h e f i f t h century there were already Indonesian Hi ndu kings i n K u t a i (Eastern Kalimantan) and in West; Java. Fa-Hsien might
have been in a p o r t o n the westernmost part of the k i n g d o m o f Taruma-
yxwvutsrponmlkihgfedcbaYWUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
nagara, w h i c h spread over Karawang, Ja ka rta , B o t o r a nd Ban te n.Ka-rawang has t h e Ci T a r u m (River T a r u m ) and the other pfaces have Purnawarman's (Tarumanagara's king's) inscriptions.
Ko-yi ng, w h i c h Pelliot (1904) located in Java was placed in Sumatra by Wolters w h o n o w t h i n k s t h a t K o - y i n g represents Ka(ra) wang as Ro-m a n o —In d i a n roul etted p o t t e r y was f o u n d in Buni east of Jakarta (Walk-er and Santoso, 1 9 7 7 ) . It is v(Walk-ery likely indeed t h a t West Java was already an i m p o r t a n t area since the Neol i thi c period, as we f i n d most of the neolithic workshops in West Java, indicating a dense popul ati on in the Neolithic period. Numerous neolithic earthenware pots were f o u n d in West Java.
Ho-ling was f o r m e r l y t h o u g h t t o be Kalinaaa. Thus in the past there was the t h e o r y that the early H i n d u " c o l o n i s t s " came f r o m Kalingga (now Orissa state). Damais however holds t h a t Ho-ling represents Walaing (1963) However Walaing was menti oned onl y twice in n i n t h century inscriptions, whereas ling was menti oned earlier. Wolters places Ho-ling also in West Java (1967) I suggested: w h y not read it as Waringin, as i t is a c o m m o n name in Indonesia. There was the Caringin area in west-ern Banten (ca=ba) and there is a place called Jatiwaringin east of Jakar-ta. In the Buni area there is Kedungringin and in Kalimantan there was Kota Waringin.
Ho-lo-tan w h i c h Wolters also places in West Java coul d n o t be identi-fied yet. But I venture to read it as Ciaruteun the river in Bogor where a Purnawarman inscription is still lying Ci (cai) is river in Sundanese and
as Ca can interchange w i t h wa, this Ci or cai is like the
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
way f o r water in South Sumatra, the eastern part of Indonesia and even up t o Hawaii.A r u t e u n means that w h i c h is t o be d r u n k , b u t there is also a place called Cirotan.
In the T'ang annals it was w r i t t e n t h a t the king of Ho-ling lives in Cho-P'o but his ancestor Ki-yen moved his capital t o the east, t o Po-lu-kia-sze. Pelliot (1904) read it as Waruh-gresik, Waruh of the beach. This led t o theories t h a t after Sanjaya's inscription was made on the Gunung Wukir, the Sanjayas moved to East Java around 7 4 2 , as they were pushed back by the Sailendras. However, Waru need n o t be in East Java especial-ly n o t near Malang, near w h i c h the D i n o y o inscription was f o u n d , as there is a Waru in Central Java w h i c h was on the beach and where ancient ceramic sherds were f o u n d (Suleiman, 1978). Even the location o f Chd-p'o had been disputed in the past. Some scholars t h o u g h t it t o be in Sumatra or the Malay Peninsula. But the f i n d o f many T'ang sherds in the
This must be around 873 as the last mission f r o m Chb-p'o was recorded t o arrive in China in t h a t year.
This is also an i ndi cati on that the royal Palace was indeed in the Prambanan area and also t h a t the Sailendra kingdom (and Mataram) was n o t a mere "agrarian k i n g d o m " by contrast w i t h Srivijaya w h i c h was regarded by scholars as a " m a r i t i m e k i n g d o m " . I asked in my Hongkong paper ( 1 9 7 8 ) : ' h o w c o u l d the Sailendra kings be so w e a l t h y as t o b u i l d the B o r o b u d u r and other monuments w i t h o u t the revenues of the seaborne trade, carried o u t by the people on the northern coast o f Central Java?' Thus the T'ang sherds were brought there by Indonesian missions or Chinese sea captains, t h o u g h still sporadic for the develop-ment of trade and merchant fleets onl y started during the southern Sung, thus n o t before the 11th c e n t u r y . Besides on the lists of foreign settlers called the Wargga Kilalan o f the 9 t h and 11th century there were Indians and Mainland Southeast Asians but no Chinese. Chinese settlers came o n l y duri ng the 12th century., starting China towns called Kota Cina or Pacinan., whereas other settlements were called the Kam-pong Koja and when there were Buginese it were the Kampung Bugis.
Sung sherds are f o u n d on the n o r t h coast of Central Java and in Eastern Java and a prominence o f Yuan sherds in Eastern Java. This can be connected w i t h Kubilai Khan's efforts t o be recognized as the suzerain o f the King o f Java, his c o n t e m p o r a r y and fellow tantrist, Kertanagara. We k n o w the story o f the Ambassador Meng-ki w h o was returned t o his master w i t h a m u t i l a t e d face b y Kertanagara and the sending of a fleet to Eastern Java by Kubilai Khan.
We may conclude that as Central and Eastern Java are concerned, is it is n o t d i f f i c u l t t o connect the ancient t o p o n y m s w i t h the finds of Chinese ceramic sherds. It is a d i f f e r e n t case w i t h t o p o n y m s in other
Indonesian islands.
Sulawesi, Moluccas
The archaeologist's interest was focussed on countries where Hindu and Buddhist monuments were f o u n d . Thus one get the impression that other countries or islands played a m i n o r role in Indonesian history.
For example Lo-cha was supposed t o represent raksasa, or the Mo-luccas, as the people were described as fierce people. But t h e same was said about the Kun-l un people w h o were w i l d , fierce, even black b u t excellent sailors. Kun-l un is even regarded as t o represent anythi ng Malay (or shall w e say the inhabitants o f island Southeast Asia). It appears t h a t navigation and trade was dependent on the role of those fierce Kun-l un sailors. When Cambodia was raided a r o u n d 7 7 0 , there was t a l k o f t h e people o f Java b u t also o f Kun-l un people, f t m i g h t be t h a t Javanese
commanders made use of Kun-l un people w h o were Orang Laut oc-cupyi ng the seas around Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula.
However, i t is possible t h a t also people f r o m southern Sulawesi belonged t o the Kun-l un group.
In southern Sulawesi pl enty o f ceramics have been f o u n d . Chinese ceramics were used f o r household utensils, for ceremonies b u t also f o r the dead (Hadi moel j ono 1978). Van Heekeren (1958) mentions a report by Van Vuuren in 1912 t h a t at Bukaka, a ceramic pot was buried in the soil. It was said t o contain the ashes of a king o f Bone, named Tamupaga. N o t far f r o m there was another funeral p o t contai ni ng the ashes o f the t h i r d king of
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Bone w h o ascended the throne in 1398. The custom of cremating o f kings was also mentioned in the chronicle of Wajo (Noor-d u y n , 1955), a king was cremate(Noor-d on t o p of his shiel(Noor-ds an(Noor-d afterwar(Noor-dshis ashes were p u t in a Chinese ceramic pot (guci). Hadimoeljono (1978) mentions another king of Bone w h o got the posthumous name o f " h e w h o rests in a p o t " .
O r d i n a r y people, b u t w e a l t h y , were buried w i t h Chinese porcelain. This is evident in southern Sulawesi where numerous graves were o f t e n illegally excavated f o r the Chinese ceramics. A systematic excavation in Takalar by Uka Tjandrasasmita in 1975 brought to light several, t h o u g h
not so large ceramics, in graves w h i c h proved that ceramics were funera1
gifts. Ceramics were status symbol there as in other parts of Indonesia. Thus people were buried w i t h i m p o r t e d ceramics.
Orsoy de Flines made a research of ceramics and sherds in 1946. In Bone were bowls, boxes and dishes f r o m the 14th — 15th c e n t u r y . A p o t f r o m Fu-Kien contai ned calcified bones o f the 16th c e n t u r y . In Watam-pone, the porcelain was f r o m Lun-chuan, Te-Hua, Yi ng Ching and Chou-t'ou of the 14th and 15th century. There were even older pot-sherds in Southern Sulawesi. The t o p o n y m Pu-ni c o u l d have represented the name Bone, a k i n g d o m in southern Sulawesi.
Brunai or Boni ?
Groeneveldt (1876) always regards Pu-ni as Brunai on the Northwes-tern coast or Borneo. However on p. 102, quoti ng f r o m the T u n g Hsi
Yang Kau (1618) b o o k V , he mentions Bun-lai, w h i c h he also regards as
Brunai, while the Chinese characters are di fferent f r o m those used t o denote Pu-ni (p. 110).
there, f o r t h i s reason there is a stone w i t h a Chinese inscription near the king's palace.
T h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t t h e people are n o t allowed t o eat p o r k in-dicates t h a t t h e y are Muslims. Yet it is f o l l o w e d by another i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t there is a templ e in this c o u n t r y in w h i c h three men are worshipped as deities. A m o n g the people there are also pirates, the Mau-su. S y a r i f f u d i n ( 1 9 7 8 ) , mentions the grave of a Chinese muslim dated 1264 A D in Brunei.
Pu-ni is m e n t i o n e d in t h e History o f the Sung dynasty ( 9 6 0 —1 2 7 9 ) B o o k 4 8 9 .
" T h i s c o u n t r y is situated in the southwestern sea; its distance f r o m Java is 4 5 days, f r o m San-bo-tsai (Palembang) 4 0 days and f r o m Champa 3 0 days, in all cases t h e w i n d to be f a i r " .
The first mission t o China was in 9 7 7 , the envoys bringing camphor, camphor- w o o d , tortoise shells, sandal- w o o d and elephant- tusks.
T h e y brought a letter f r o m their king Hiang- ta. " T h e letter was enclosed in d i f f e r e n t small bags, w h i c h were sealed, and it was not w r i t t e n o n Chinese paper, b u t on what looked like very t h i n bark of a three, it was glossy slightly green, several feet long and somewhat broader than one i n c h , and rolled up so t i g h t l y that it could be taken w i t h i n the hand. The characters in w h i c h it was w r i t t e n were small and had t o be read h o r i z o n t a l l y " . Were these perhaps the lontara of the Buginese ?
Pu-ni is also mentioned in the History o f the Ming dynasty ( 1 3 6 8 — 1643) Book 3 2 5 . (Groeneveldt, p. 110).
Here one gets the impression that Pu-ni was near Java: " I n the 8 t h m o n t h o f the year 1370 the Emperor sent t w o officers to go abroad as envoys; t h e y left Ch'uan-chou in a ship, arrived at Java after half a year and in a m o n t h more t h e y came t o this c o u n t r y " .
A f t e r w a r d s f o l l o w s the i n f o r m a t i o n : that the c o u n t r y had hi therto belonged t o Java. The Chinese envoys succeeded in convincing the king t o send a mission t o China. The king sent envoys bringing a letter, crane crests, living tortoises, peacocks, camphor baros, cl oth f r o m the west and incense, t h e y came the 8 t h m o n t h of the f o l l o w i n g year w i t h the Chinese envoys.
There was again a mission in 1405 sent by king Maraja Ka-la. There were more missions in 1408, 1412, 1415, 1425. even in 1530. A king o f Pu-ni died in the Wan-li period ( 1 5 7 3 - 1 6 1 9 ) , there was a war in the c o u n t r y at last all t h e competi tors were killed and the daughter of the late k i n g was p u t o n t h e t h r o n e . Then there was an i n f o r m a t i o n about ^ man o f Fu-kein named Chang w h o had been made a " d a t u " in t h a t
c o u n t r y .
T h o u g h t h e c o u n t r y d i d n o t bring any more t r i b u t e , the intercourse by traders was u n i n t e r u p t e d . " T h e c o u n t r y consists o f fourteen d i f f e r e n t ' places and is situated at the east o f Palembang".
Grace Wong mentions, t h a t after some harbours in the Philippines, and Sulu f o l l o w s Pu-ni before the Moluccas. On p. 57 Grace Wong (1978) reads Dong- Chong j u - la as Tanjung Pura in Borneo, but I prefer Dongga-ia, a harbour on the west coast of Central Sulawesi, before Pu-ni.
W h y should ships w h i c h reached Su-lu sail westwards t o Brunai be-f o r e proceeding to the Moluccas ?. Woul d it be not more logical that they sailed on to Bone on the east coast of the southern peninsula
(left leg) or Sulawesi w h i c h is already near the Moluccas ?.
One reason t o i denti fy Pu-ni as Brunai is delivery of camphor to China. But delivery o f certain products does n o t mean that these pro-ducts were f r o m the c o u n t r y itself, f o r countries w h i c h were entrepots like f o r example Sriwijaya, brought commodi ti es t o China f r o m all over the Indonesian Archipelago and even countries in the West.
Religious evidence
Pangeran Syari ffudi n of Brunai (1978), w h o regards Pu-ni as Brunai, states that Brunai became a Moslem sultanate in the 12 th century. The i n f o r m a t i o n on
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Bun-lai in the Tung-Hsi Yang K'au Book V, that the people were forbi dden to eat p o r k, suits this.I f Pu-ni or Boni was Bone in Sulawesi, it became a Moslem c o u n t r y very late, namely in the beginning of the 17th c e n t u r y .
Chau Ju kua mentions besides a description of the king and his encourage and his possession of a hundred warships, also that the godhead consists o u t of t w o pearls in a building of a few stories (a temple ?). Wang-Ta-Yuen, w r i t i n g in 1349 on Pu-ni mentions that people worship Buddha statues, are polite to the Chinese, and are ski l ful l in arithmetic and accounting. ( K r o m , 1931).
Before Islam entered Southern Sulawesi, what was the religion o f the people ?. I f o u n d in the Beknopte Encyclopaedic van Nederlandsch Indie: p. (1921) p. 70 under "Boegi neezen" (namely the Buginese ethnic group t o w h i c h also the people of Boni belong): " t h e y worshipped many spirits, called dewata, served by the Bissu (priests), and the Sangiyang, amongst w h o m Sangiyang Saerri the spirit of the rice enjoys the particu-lar w o r s h i p . The chief o f spirits is Batara Guru (Siva). They aiso worship Karaeing-lowe (The Great L o r d ) " .
p r o b a b l y got t o k n o w f r o m Java: dewata, Bhatara G u r u . The kings were called Bhatara, like in Majapahit ( N o o r d u y n , 1955).
Trade routes
A n o t h e r reason f o r us to locate Pu-ni (spelled as Boni b y Grace Wong, 1978), in Southern Sulawesi is t h a t it was on the "Eastern r o u t e " , o f the blue and w h i t e Ming ceramics.
The trade ,in spices and aromatic products f r o m the Moluccas and the lesser Sunda islands had been t h r i v i n g t h r o u g h the ages. It was either Srivijaya o r Java w h i c h sent envoys, bringing these commodi ti es t o China before the reign of the southern Sung. The Indonesian envoys came on Indonesian ships.. It was o n l y duri ng the southern Sung period t h a t Chinese trade and navigation were f u l l y developed (Wolters, 1967; Hall, 1970). There were Chinese ships sailing t o Indonesian ports but sporadically, like f o r example when f o r the first ti me after an absence of a c e n t u r y a mission f r o m Java arrived in China in 992. The group came along w i t h a Chinese merchant on a Chinese ship.
Chinese visited the Archipelago, but they di d n o t yet settle there, as we menti oned above.
A f t e r the development of Chinese navigation and trade during the southern Sung peri od, Chinese ships went to the Archipelago via the eastern route, and direct t o the spice and aromatic islands in eastern and southeastern part o f Indonesia. This might have caused the weakening of Srivijaya f o r the Chinese were no longer dependent on the " t r i b u t a r y t r a d e " f r o m that part o f the Archipelago n o w that they could get these c o m m o d i t i e s and camphor f r o m other sources. The i n f o r m a t i o n that the Chinese emperor sent envoys to Bo-ni via Java is very significant, for t h e y might n o t have been allowed t o visit Bo-ni w i t h o u t the permission f r o m Java, t o w h i c h it belonged. The i n f o r m a t i o n that the raiders f r o m Sulu left Puni (Boni) o n l y after the appearance of Javanese troops indicates the role of the Javanese in Boni w h i c h was near the Moluccas and n o t Brunai w h i c h was t o o far f r o m the spice trade.
Grace Wong, in her article o n blue- and w h i t e porcelain, mentions o n p. 6 8 : the searoutes in the Tao-I-Choh-Lueh Dao-Yi Z h i Lue and the Dong Xi Yang Kao:
" t h e eastern sea route w o u l d begin f r o m Taiwan and L u z o n , and w o u l d cover the Sulu Sea and Sulawesi, to reach the Moluccas and return via the eastern coast o f B o r n e o " . The western sea route w o u l d begin f r o m Fukien and w o u l d cover Vietnam, Peninsular
Ma-laysia, Sumatra, Java, Bali and T i m o r , and w o u l d return via t h e southwest a n d western coast o f B o r n e o " .
Thus we may conclude t h a t Brunai was on t h e
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
western route and had nothi ng to do w i t h the spice trade. The first mission f r o m Java(ruled b y Dharmawangsa Tguh) visited China in 9 9 2
yxwvutsrponmlkihgfedcbaYWUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
A D . It is possiblet h a t Chinese captains started sailing t o the eastern part o f the Archipe-lago t o lure the Indonesians t o China instead o f bringing commodi ti es
co Srivijaya w h i c h sent missions via the western route.
The Seafaring Buginese of southern Sulawesi
In Indonesian history the Buginese of southern Sulawesi played a very i m p o r t a n t role. The royal dynasties in the Riau, Aceh and Malaysia were Bugis in ori gi n. A t home t h e y had agriculture, trade b u t also navi-gation. The men were encouraged t o cross the seas. Like the Orang Laut around Sumatra, t h e y must have played an i m p o r t a n t role near Java and in the eastern part of the Archipelago. They mi ght have been present in Mataram, Central Java of the 9 t h century. S t u t t e r h e i m ( 1 9 3 3 ) , noticed the similarity in titles of Javanese princes and those f r o m southern Sula-wesi. Boni might have been the center of Buginese activities at least in the 13th — 14 century. T h e y w r o t e lontaras (manuscripts) comprising diaries, administrative reports and genealogies whi ch is an indication of a sophisticated society w i t h a t r a d i t i o n of w r i t i n g .
Being traders, they were good at ari thmati c and accounting w h i c h suits the data in the writings o f Wang-Ta-Yuen, besides the m e n t i o n i n g of the 100 warships owned by the king. There was the spirit of adventure, besides settling d o w n on other Indonesian islands, Buginese even settled on the n o r t h coast of Australia.
Similar t o the situation in Srivijaya where the power was supported by the Orang Laut in the Straits of Malacca, the Javanese kings might have been dependent on the seafaring people o f Sulawesi, namely the Buginese. I suggested in a previous paper (1978) that Srivijaya and Java were always struggling f o r hegemony in the seas. Their missions t o China never overlapped (Wolters, 1 9 6 7 ) .
When the Sailendras were ousted f r o m Java around 856, the Buginese remained f a i t h f u l t o t h e m , when t h e y were reigning Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula. The Buginese c o u l d together w i t h the princes of the harbours of northern Central Java, c u t o f f the trade f r o m the interior t o the sea. This might be one o f the reasons t h a t the kings o f Mataram had t o shift their center o f power t o East Java in the first half o f t h e 10th century, especially after the e r u p t i o n o f the Merapi w h i c h buried the capital and the road t o the northcoast (about the shi ft see Boechari,
Thus the spices and aromatic products were brought by the Buginese sailors f r o m the Moluccas and the lesser Sunda islands t o Sri-vijaya. This was no longer necessary after the Chinese sailed the eastern route. Thus again the first embassy of 9 7 7 and the mission of Chinese t o Bo-ni mi ght be seen in the light o f the active role o f the Buginese in the spice trade.
It is f o r this reason that I propose to read Pu-ni (Bo-ni) as Bone and n o t Brunei, because of the role of Bone in the trade in spices and aromatic products.
Conclusions:
1. Pu-ni (Boni) mi ght have been Bone (Boni) because of:
a. its association w i t h Java
b. the finds of porcelain sherds in Boni
c. its nearness t o the Moluccas and the sandalwood-islands
d. its w o r s h i p . o f statues according t o Chau-Ju Kua suits Bone more than Brunai w h i c h had already adopted Islam in the 12th century 2. Extensive excavations have t o be started in the Bone area, in the
near f u t u r e t o search f o r more evidences on the eastern trade route.
3. The reading of Indonesian t o p o n y m s spelled in the Chinese way needs revision, as u n t i l now stress had been laid on " H i n d u i z e d " countries, whereas countries w i t h o u t Hindu and Buddhist monu-ments were overl ooked, though they might have played an import-ant role because of the trade in spices and aromatic products.
Bibliogra phy
Boechari
1976 Some considerations of the problem of the shift of Mataram's Center of Government f r o m Central t o East
Java in the 10th Century.
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Bull. Res. Centre of Arch,Jakarta.
Bosch, F.D.K
1952 Local genius en O u d — Javaansche Kunst. Meded. Kon.
Ned Akademie van Wetenschappen
Bronson, B. and Wisseman,J
1974 A n archaelogical survey in Sumatra, 1973. Sumatra
Research Bulletin, 4(1)
Damais, L.Ch.
1963 The Chinese transcription H o — ling as a name for Java.
Proceedings of the ninth Pacific Science Congress, vol. 3.
Groeneveldt W.P.
1876 Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca,
com-piled f r o m Chinese sources. TBG X X X I X Batavia;
Bratara, 1960. Jakarta
Hadi moel j ono
1980 Sumbangan keramik asing bagi penelitian arkeologi di
daerah Sulawesi S e l a t a n - Ujung Pandang. Lokakarya
Arkeologi 1978.
Hall, D.G.E.
1970 A history of South-East Asia. London t h i r d E d i t i o n .
Heekeren, H.R.van
1958 77?e Bronze— Iron Age of Indonesia The Hague.
K r o m , N.J.
1931 Hindoe— Javaansche Geschiedenis.'s Gravenhage.
N o o r d u y n , J.
Orsoy de Flines, E.W. van
1941 Onderzoek naar en van keramische scherven in de
bo-dem in Noordelijk Midden Java 1 9 0 - 4 2 .
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
Oudheid-kundig Verslag 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 7 , Bijlage A. 2 6 - 8 8 .
Pelliot, P.
1904 Deux itine' raires de la Chine en Inde a la fin du V I I e siecle. BEFE0 4 1 3 1 - 4 1 3 .
Satyawati Suleiman
1978 A few observations on the use of ceramics in
1980 Indonesia. Symposium on trade pottery in East &
South—East Asia. Hongkong; Aspects on Indonesian Archeology, n o . 7. 1980
S t u t t e r h e i m , W . F .
1933 lets over raka en rakryan naar aanleiding van Sindoks
dynastieke positie. TBG13, p. 1 5 —1 7 1 .
S y a r i f f u d i n bin P. Metali
1978 D i s t r i b u t i o n of Chinese and Siamese ceramics in
Brunei. Symposium on trade pottery in East and
South— East Asia. Hongkong.
Uka Tjandrasasmita
1970 The South Sulawesi Excavation Project. Archaeological F o u n d a t i o n , Jakarta.
Walker, MJ and Santoso Soegondho
1977 R o m a n o — Indian rouletted pottery Mankind 11,1
Wolters. O.W.
1967 Early Indonesian Commerce. Ithaca. USA.
Wolters, O.W.
1979 " K h m e r ' H i n d u i s m ' in the Seventh Century, In: Early
South East Asia. Essays in Archaeology, History and
Historical Geography. O x f o r d University Press.
1979 S t u d y i n g Srivijaya. JMBRAS vol L l l part 2 , p. 1 - 3 2 .
Wong, Grace
1978 Chinese blue and w h i t e porcelain and its place in the
mari ti me trade o f China, in Chinese Blue and white
porcelain, p. 5 1 —9 3 . Ceramics society. Singapore.
T H E C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F P O T T E R Y F R O M G I L I M A N U K , B A L I
Santoso Soegondho
National Research Centre of Archaeology (Indonesia)
G i l i m a n u k is situated on the western end of Bali island, w i t h a wide beach located in the southern part of Gi l i manuk Bay. It is sur-rounded by M o u n t Prapatagung in the n o r t h , the mountainous area on the east and Bali Strait on the west. The vast area of G i l i m a n u k is f o r m e d by five stages of beach-ridges (Verstappen, 1975, fig. 1 1 , Soejo-no, 1977; 2 8 1 ) . The first beach-ridge is the oldest one while the f i f t h being the youngest.
The site being the object o f archaeological research, is located between the first and the second beach-ridge. The area was f o r m e d by a plain w i t h an al ti tude of 5 metres above sealevel, sloping east and westwards. Some parts are used f o r t o m a t o —, sweet p o t a t o —, cassave—, c o r n - , and peanut c u l t i v a t i o n . The soil on the beach area often suffers f r o m erosion and stagnant water, especially at high tide.
The conti nuous erosion caused cracks and fissures, exposing fragments of human or animal bones, potsherds, fragments of bronze, beads, metal etc. Those finds indicate the presence of remains of human activities in the past. In 1962 a trial excavation was carried o u t on the northern part of the plain resulting in an assumption t h a t the site of Gi l i manuk forms a remains of human habi tati on dating f r o m the metal age.
A series o f systematic excavations were later on conducted to
strengthen
i
i this assumption, namely in 1963, 1964, 1973. A n areaof 137,5 m 2 , comprising 22 boxes of 2,5 x 2,5 m each was dug out. Stratigraphy on the site show f o u r layers whi ch appeared consistently t h r o u g h o u t the excavated area w i t h the f o l l o w i n g specification (Soe-j o n o , 1977 : 177 - 179).
L a y e r - 1 : Black humus, disturbed at several places by human acti-vities. This layer contained rubbish f r o m recent times.
Potsherds and shells f r o m lower levels appeared at distur-bed sections. The average thickness of this layer is about 2 0 c m .
L a y e r —2 : Yellow-grey fine grained soil. The lower part contained potsherds and shells, i ndi cati ng a gradual transi ti on i n t o the f o l l o w i n g layer. * ) . This layer has an average thickness of ca 15 c m .
L a y e r —3 : Light t o dark b r o w n c o m p o s i t i o n of clay and sand in whi ch remnants are discernible, consisting of a high q u a n t i t y o f potsherds and shells, some well preserved vessels, pieces of ornaments and fragments of metal objects. Other sub-stances were skeletal fragments of pigs, f o w l and fish. Human skeletons onl y came up in some sectors. This layer has a thicknes between 4 0 cm t o 115 c m .
L a y e r —4 : Light grey sand. Most of the human burials; provided w i t h gifts were revealed in the upper level of this layer, usually at a depth of ca. 75 c m f r o m the previous level.
Remains of human activities are concentrated in the t h i r d layer. N e a r l y all of t h e m are f o u n d in fragmentary c o n d i t i o n , only a small number o f isolated earthenware p o t t e r y and some small beads of glass and shell are in a good state. Funeral goods, made of bronze, i ron, gold, glass, shell and baked clay, f r o m the sand layer are usually well preserved (Soejono, 1977 ; 178 - 180).
Research on the cul tural elements f o u n d at Gi l i manuk is still t o be c o n t i n u e d w i t h the expectation of obtai ni ng more evidence t o com-plete the present data. It w o u l d be t o o early t o classify the sherds f r o m G i l i m a n u k as one of the cultural elements f o u n d at the site. As a prel i mi nary analysis f o r the m o m e n t , I shall restrict this w r i t i n g t o the classification of G i l i m a n u k sherds according t o the data available at present. T h o u g h this classification is meant to be a temporary one w h i c h can be revised by more recent data.
Pottery f o u n d at G i l i m a n u k consists of pots, bowls, pitchers, jars, plates and lids. Most c o m m o n are the pots w i t h various shapes or types.
Pots f o r m the d o m i n a n t feature among the p o t t e r y at Gilimanuk. They are o f various sizes. Three categories were observed after classi-f i c a t i o n on their size, viz. small, m e d i u m and large pots. Generally, these pots can be put i n t o t w o divisions namely globular and carinated pots. Pottery of the former type has a medi um sized m o u t h , w i t h a globular body and r o u n d b o t t o m , and no spout. The globular shape varies f r o m spherical t o ellipsoid and egg-shaped. This k i n d of p o t t e r y , t h o u g h simple, has a large c o n t e n t . As sub-type of this category are t o be menti oned a. 1 : globular p o t w i t h straight neck, a.2 : globular p o t w i t h convex neck, and variant o f a.2, i.e. w i t h ponvex neck and f o o t (a2 — 1). The globular shape o f b o d y and b o t t o m is spherical whereas the r i m is very simple. This k i n d of container is very simple b u t solid and has a large c o n t e n t . Sub-type a. 2 have a convex neck w i t h a special r i m . C o n t o u r o f the b o d y and b o t t o m f o l l o w s the pat-t e r n o f an elipsoid. The popat-ts are m o s pat-t l y o f big size so pat-t h a pat-t pat-they can
conta in
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
much.. T h e most special f o r m a m o n g th e globula r pots is shownby a p o t w i t h a convex neck and f o o t (outfl aredf. The upper part of the body is decorate^ by a wavy band o f clay. This t y p e o f pots also f o r m special containers w i t h a large content.
Carinated pots are represented only by type (ap) and sub-type (ap 1). T y p e (ap) : Profile of the upper part of body shows a straight line, w h i l e downwards it is globular. The upper part f o r m an angle w i t h the lower part. These pots w i t h m e d i u m sized m o u t h seem t o have a rather large c o n t e n t , b u t its variety and number is l i m i t e d . Subtypes of these carinated pots are pots w i t h angled neck (out-flared m o u t h ) .
Other forms of Gi l i manuk p o t t e r y w i t h complex shape or type are the bowls. Though n o t numerous, they show much variety. Similar t o pots, bowls generally can be p u t i n t o t w o categories, namely the r o u n d and carinated bowls. The round bowls have several sub-types and are varied, viz. bowls of w h i c h the contour of b o d y and b o t t o m is hyperbol i c. The r o u n d shape of body follows the pattern o f an ellipsoid and a c y l i n d r i c , whereas the contours shows a divergent (un-restricted), and vertical line. Bowls of this k i n d have various shape and size b u t can contai n very l i t t l e . Sub-types of t y p e (b) are shown among others by a round b o w l w i t h a fl at b o t t o m (b.1), a round and high f o o t e d bowl (b.2) and i t variant : a bowl w i t h a round serrated body w i t h f o o t ( b . 2 —1 ) . A special f o r m is shown by the sub-type ( b 2 ) : a round bowl w i t h high outflared m o u t h of small size.
The variant (b.2 - 1) is somewhat d i f f e r e n t w i t h respect t o the inner space, w h i c h is c o n t i n u e d d o w n to the f o o t part, while the base of the f o o t is fl at and massive.
Other bowls are the carinated bowls of t y p e (bp) and subtype (bp.1). T w o kinds of shoulders are observed, a round-and sharp angled shoulder. T h e y usually have a rather high b o d y , (compared t o the round bowls) and widening m o u t h , so i t looks bigger, w i t h a large capacity.
Bowls of subtype (bp.1) have usually a rounded shoulder, a rather high body and fl at b o t t o m . W i t h this k i n d of shape added by incised decoration on the b o d y , bowls o f this t y p e look bigger.
Other kinds of p o t t e r y f r o m G i l i m a n u k are very few in number and as well as in variety among others : kendi (pitchers) jars, plates and lids. Pitchers are classified as t y p e (c) w i t h subtype (c.1). T y p e (c) has a globular body w i t h a slender neck, narrowing m o u t h and a spout o n the upper part of b o d y . Decoration was made by incised wavy and straight lines. They are very few in number. T y p e (c.1) has a similar shape, b u t w i t h still smaller m o u t h and longer neck and no spout.
Pottery of big size, as compared t o other kinds of p o t t e r y are those of t y p e (d) or better k n o w n as " j a r s " . These jars have only one shape : globular, wide m o u t h e d and thi ck walled. Wi th these characteristics, the jars are very sol i d, w i t h a large c o n t e n t .
Dishes or plates are also only of one shape, namely type (b). These are shallow bowls w i t h round b o t t o m .
Other kinds of few types are the lids (type t a). These are mostly small sized shallow bowls w i t h a k n o b sprouting centre of the inner b o t t o m , w h i c h are used as handle. Based upon their size they were assumed t o be lids o f m e d i u m sized pots.
Decoration. Some of these Gi l i manuk p o t t e r y are decorated. They consist o f m a n y patterns, such as, lines, k n o t —, fish b o n e —, geometri c—, scallop f l o w e r and wavy band pattern etc. Techniques of decoration are : impressed, incised and applied (applique). Impressed technique gave l i n e s —, fish b o n e —, geometric, fl ower design and other: while w i t h the technique of a p p l i q a t i o n , wavy bands were usually obtained. The net design' is most c o m m o n among the Gilimanuk p o t t e r y . This design shows the straight and slanting rectangulars f o r m e d by crossed lines impressed on the body and b o t t o m of p o t t e r y .
Pottery of t y p e a, some bowls of type b, type bp and jars of type
d are decorated w i t h this design. Contrary to this net designs, scallop
designs are very rarely f o u n d on Gi l i manuk p o t t e r y , namely only on the
type ap 7. This k i n d of decoration is mostly done on the edge of
can-n a t i o can-n .
Line design is also c o m m o n , consisting of short, strai ght—, slan-t i n g —, crossing—, curving and wavy lines. This k i n d of design is incised on several parts of the p o t t e r y , like on the b o d y , shoulders, neck, r i m ,
and the inner surface, and are represented by p o t t e r y of type c, type
bp, sub t y p e bp 1 and some potsherds.
Incised fish bone is very scarce on Gi l i manuk Pottery. It is f o u n d on the body below the rim as shown on one of the sherds. Flower design is pi ctured on sherd G L M S XI11/165 and geometric design is consisting of triangle, d i a m o n d and others f o r m interesting decorati on.
Decoration obtained by application technique are the wavy band made o f clay encircling the b o d y , as shown by p o t t e r y of variant a 2 — 1
and some potsherds.
Colour. Colour of p o t t e r y is usually obtained in t w o ways. Firstly by chemical reaction o f clay, air, temperature and length of f i r i n g , Secondly by changes caused traces o f usage, such as s o o t h , col ouri ng,
chemical reaction o f surrounding soil and erosion etc (Shepard, 1965 :
yxwvutsrponmlkihgfedcbaYWUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
In general, Gi l i manuk b r o w n and black coloured p o t t e r y are also present. The b r o w n col our of G i l i m a n u k p o t t e r y is the basic col our obtained by firing. Its is most d o m i n a n t among other Gi l i manuk p o t t e r y , almost all types are of this col our, except some types of pots, f o o t bowls and pitchers. It varies f r o m ' i g h t b r o w n , yellowish brown t o dark b r o w n , though n o t very clear because of later changes.
Red col our p o t t e r y are lew, consisting as some globular pots.
Footed bowls, pitchers of type
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
c and subtype c 1 and some sherds. This red colour is obtained by slipping on the outer surface. Slippingis meant for decoration and consolidation (Shepard, 1965 : 67 — 6 9 ) .
T A B L E
yxwvutsrponmlkihgfedcbaYWUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
1 C L A S S I F I C A T I O N O F G I L I M A N U K P O T T E R YS h a p e T y p e S u b t y p e V a r i a n t
Gl obul ar (a) = p o t (a 1) Straight necked
—
(a 2) Convex necked ( a 2 - 1 ) = f o o t e d
(b) = bowl (b D F I a t b o t t o m e d
(b 2) Footed ( b 2 - 1 ) = serrated
(c) = pitcher (c 1) Unspouted
(d) = jar
—
—
(e) = plate (ta) = lid
Carinated (ap) = p o t (ap 1) Slanting
necked
(bp) = bowl (bp 1) Flat
b o t t o m e d
T A B L E 2 D E C O R A T I V E P A T T E R N S O N G I L I M A N U K P O T T E R Y
Specification Pottery t y p e S h e r d
N e t ( a ) ; ( b ) ; ( b p ) ; ( d ) almost all sherds
Scallop (ap 1)
L i n e (c); ( b p ) ; (bp 1) some sherds
Fish bone some sherds
Flower sherd G L M S X!11/165
Triangle sherd TWSD 9
D i a m o n d sherd TWSD 9
A p p l i q u e sherd TWSD 1
Bibliogra phy
Gardin, Jean — Claude
1968 " F o u r Codes for the Description of A r t i f a c t s : A n Essay
in Archaeological Technique and T h e o r y . "
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
AmericanAnthropologist, 6 0 (2), Wisconsin : 335 - 3 5 7 .
Rouse, Irving
1960 " T h e Classification of A r t i f a c t s in A r c h a e o l o g y . " Ameri-can Antiquity, 25 (3) : 313 - 3 2 3 .
1965 "Caribean Ceramics : A Study in M e t h o d and T h e o r y . "
Ceramics and Man. Frederick R. Matson (ed). A l d i n e Publishing Company, Chicago : 88 — 103.
1970 The Classification of A r t i f a c t s , Introductory Readings
in Archaeology. Brian M. Fagan (ed), L i t t l e Brown and
Company, Boston : 185 - 199.
Shepard, Anna 0 .
1965 Ceramics for the Archaeologist, Publication 6 0 9 Carnegie I n s t i t u t i o n of Washington.
Soejono, R.P.
1963 " I n d o n e s i a . " (Regional Report). Asian Perspectives V I (1 - 2 ) , 1962 : 35 - 36.
1977 Sistim-sistim Penguburan Pada Akhir Masa Prasejarah di Bali. Disertation, University of Indonesia, Jakarta.
Verstappen, H.Th.
1975 On Palaeoclimates and L a n d f o r m Development in M
alay-sia. Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia,
D E C O R A T E D P O T T E R Y F R O M T H E S O U T H C O A S T O F J A V A B E T W E E N P A C I T A N A N D C I L A C A P
Goenadi Nitihaminoto
National Research Centre of Archaeology (Indonesia)
I. Introduction
This paper is intended to present data regarding our archaeological findings specially that of pottery in sites located between Pacitan and Cilacap. For so long the south coast of J a w a has been neglected mainly because this area contains no large classical monuments. But the presence of pottery offers a rich evidence for us to reconstruct the history of this area and it is for this reason that I call attention to the study of pottery.
We know that pottery is one of mankind's most important cultural products and is one of the means whereby we can gain contact w i t h the past. Human beings create pottery for fulfilling their daily needs, either for practical or for ceremonial purposes. Since pottery plays an important role in the social life of the past, they become a valuable source of data for reconstructing the social conditions in ancient times. Almost all of the archaeological sites in Indonesia have pottery or sherds w h i c h can be used as evidence about certain aspects of human life in previous eras.
Pottery of various types occupied an important position in the so-cial life of the pre-historic period and this is also applicable to some extent to present-day conditions.
Pottery made in more recent times can be said to represent traditio-nal culture that has been carried over from the old .times w i t h many forms and techniques still surviving until now. Many people use them as cooking vessels, as containers for liquids and for many other usages before plastic wares are substituted for pottery. We see this phenomenon already happening in the rural areas where pottery is being supplanted by plastic ware. I think that not too long in the future, pottery making which is still found in many places in Indonesia will diminish if not vanish because of the increasing predominance of plastic ware as well as of other products of modern technology. A s an archaeologist however,
I agree w i t h my colleagues that pottery must be made to survive not only because it shows us how people made pottery in the old days, but the more remarkable reason is the fact that there are certain dishes w h i c h people today still prefer to cook in pottery. Rather than use other kinds of vessels, pottery is preferred since the flavor of such food o n l y comes out well when cooked in earthenware. T h a t is w h y
we carry out research on old pottery and encourage the expansion and further development of present pottery making. It is w i t h due considera-tion of this problem that I try to present the result of our research on pottery along the south coast of Java between Pacitan and Cilacap.
Earlier research conducted by V a n der Hoop has pointed out that along the limestone mountains in the south coast between Y o g y a and Pa-citan there were many decorated sherds ( V a n der Hoop, 1938: 94—9B). T h i s information attracted my attention and I decided to survey the area. Later o n , the area of investigation was expanded to include the area far to the west of Y o g y a k a r t a . T h e 1S-day survey covered a distance of about 3.BOO kms. T h i s is only a preliminary survey where we have found some prehistoric sites.
A m o n g the sites is Gunung Wingko w h i c h has been excavated. T h e Gunung Wingko finds resemble the decorated and undecorated sherds f r o m other sites. T h e decorated pottery have impressed or incised patterns associated with other finds, e.g.: human skeletons, human bones, fragments of bracelets, rings made of bronze, iron fragments, beads, pottery, charcoal, tools and finery made of animal bone, etc. It is a pity that we still do not as yet have absolute dating for the charcoal and other finds.
T h e other sites along the south coast have not yet been excavated. T h e finds consisting of decorated and undecorated sherds are collected only from the surface and very few whole pottery have so far been found, except for
zywvutsrponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
nyiru, jugs and bowls which we were able to re-construct from the available sherds.T h e decorated pottery w h i c h we found do not resemble the present day pottery, so it is important to discuss this further in greater detail. If there are any similarities between the old and those of contemporary pottery, the places where the sherds were found and the places where contempo-rary wares are made are far apart.
We know that decoration requires special skills from the potters and sometimes can indicate the social environment including that of religious beliefs and values of people. Potters do not decorate their pots if they have no previous knowledge for fear of spoiling certain magical effects. However, not all decorations have a spiritual purpose. S t i l l , decorations and other attributes of f o r m made on the pot have an indirect purpose. For instance impressed design of basketry is the result of the process itself. When a basket is used as a foundation, its
large b o t t o m makes it possible to remove the moulded pot w i t h o u t
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYXWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
II.
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
T h e SitesT h e archaeological survey along the south coast of J a v a was carried out in J u n e , 1 9 7 9 b y the P r o y e k Penelitian dan Penggalian Purbakala Y o g y a k a r t a ( T h e Project of Archaeological Research of Y o g y a k a r t a ) wherein the writer acted as T e a m Leader. In this survey, we visited three provinces, that is East J a v a , Central Java and the Special T e r r i t o r y of Y o g y a k a r t a including eight regencies, e.g.: Pacitan, Wonogiri, Gunung K i d u l , B a n t u l , K u l o n Progo, Purworejo, K e b u m e n and Cilacap. A m o n g the eight regency areas, we found four sites of pottery and prehistoric sites located in the regency of Gunung K i d u l , B a n t u l , Purworejo and K e b u m e n . In the regency of Pacitan, K u l o n Progo and Cilacap we did not find any decorated sherds on the surface. We found only undecorated ones but I do not have possitive proof that the sherds are old. I received information from the inhabitants in the area that the sherds came from the people w h o made salt years ago, about the 19th century. Although our information collected from the people in the area would date the sherds to the 19th the century, nonetheless, I collected samples from each area.
Den Ombo Site
T h i s site is situated very close to the seashore of K r a k a l , in the regency of Gunung K i d u l , district of Tepus. T h e area is a plain w h i c h is not so large, about 2 kms. long and 0,B k m . wide. T h e site itself is about 1 .BOO x BOO meters. It is located along a row of limestone moun-tains. T h e local people call this area Den Ombo, in Javanese w h i c h m e a n s a
plain w i t h plenty of sand (Den is derived from the word wedi — sand, and
Ombo w h i c h means plentiful, large or a great a m o u n t ) .
Here we found many undecorated sherds and just t w o pieces of decorated ones. According to the 6 0 year's old local guide w h o provided us w i t h information about the area, the sherds w h i c h were spread all over the surface were already there w h e n he was a c h i l d . T h e other finds w h i c h were spread over the surface were shells and animal bone frag-ments. T h e decorated sherds w e found are unique, for among so many sherds there are only t w o w h i c h have this type of decoration namely: three small holes in a row, and the other consisting of a combination of impressed and corded design. No complete or whole pot has been found so far. A t the moment w i t h the limited information w e have, we still do not know what must have been the function of the site. B u t based on sherds we collected so far, we can temporarily reconstruct the rim of the pot the diameter of w h i c h is about 24 c m . I believe that more decorated sherds and even whole pieces will be found in the future if intensive research will be undertaken.
Gunung Wingko
Gunung Wingko is the name of a sand dune which afterwards became the name of the village in the regency of B a n t u l , district of Sanden, Special T e r r i t o r y of Y o g y a k a r t a . There are t w o rows of sand dunes, w h i c h lie in east — west direction, both of them running parallel w i t h the seashore. T h e sand dune where thousands of sherds are scattered lies in the north row. It is older than the sand dune in the southern part.
T h e site has been excavated five times and a geological survey has been done. Observing the results of the excavation, the site must have been used for burial and for settlement purposes. T h e finds consisted of some human skeletons and other fragments of human bones, showing evidence that it was a burial place. Pottery was used as a container of funeral gifts.
T r a c e s of an old river were found in the geological survey. Stratigra-phically, it shows that there are t w o periods of occupation and that the people moved f r o m one place to the other w i t h i n the same site at diffe-rent times. T h e y also lived on the bank of an old river w h i c h was flowing close to the sand dune. T h e decorated and plain pottery and sherds have been found in the excavation. T h e r e are t w o kinds of decorated sherds, that is impressed and incised w i t h various types and patterns.
Wingko Sigromulyo Site
T h e site of Wingko Sigromulyo is situated about 10 K m s in the northern part of the coast. Wingko Sigromulyo is a name of the village, in the regency of Purworejo, district of Ngombol. T h e site lies in the village area and is disturbed. Many big trees have been planted in the area, and there are many houses and other structures of local inhabitants' and in the northern section there is a graveyard.
No whole pottery was found in this site, so it is difficult to tell w h a t were the shapes of pottery in the area. But based on the sherds f o u n d on the surface they must have been made w i t h paddle and anvil w i t h various surface patterns and motifs.
Ayamputih Site
A y a m p u t i h is the name of the village in the district of Buluspesan-t r e n , in Buluspesan-the regency of K e b u m e n . T h e siBuluspesan-te lies abouBuluspesan-t 2 K m s . on Buluspesan-the northern part of the seashore. There are t w o rows of sand dunes and both run parallel w i t h the seashore along the east — west direction. On the northern sand dune there are many sherds. We found ones that are
decorated and others that are plain. T h e pattern of decoration looks like
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYXWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
T h e A y a m p u t i h site is also situated about 2 K m s . o n the east bank of the L u k Ulo River. T h e sand dune where the sherds are found is a cultivated area. Compared to the Gunung Wingko site the A y a m p u t i h site is not too large. T h e sherds w i t h paddle mark pattern are still in good condition.
III. T h e Decorated Pottery
A s we have mentioned above the only site where whole pottery was found is Gunung Wingko. It has many types and decorations but some-times some of the sherds were plain. T h e jar is the dominant shape w i t h relatively long neck and the rim is a bit flared. T h e body is not e x a c t l y spherical ( F i g . 1 : d - f ) .
Usually, the sherds were found associated w i t h human skeletons. T h e jars have incised decorations on the shoulder or body, generally fish bone or net motif incised vertically or horizontally. Sometimes the same decoration is found on the body. A s for the other types of pottery it is hard to tell their complete shape, but based on sherds they must be globular in shape.
A decorated bowl was found in complete shape, though broken when it was found. After reconstructing the vessel it turned out that the lower part of the body close to the bottom was incised w i t h parallel lines ( F i g . 1 : h).
T h e unique shape from the Gunung Wingko pottery complex is the
zywvutsrponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
tampah (nyiru - w i n n o w ) type (winnowing t r a y ) , a round shallow vessel w i t h a flat bottom ( F i g . 1 : g). T h e complete shape of this type of vessel has not been f o u n d , but its sherds come to as much as 9 5 % of the total sherds collected. Based on the sherds we can more or lessre-construct the shape and measurement of the pottery. T h e small tampah
type is 4 , 5 cm high, the diameter of the rim is 19 cm and the bottom is 2 5 cm in its diameter. T h e bigger shape of that type is 9 cm high, 8 0 cm in rim diameter and 84 cm for its diameter at the bottom.
T h i s type of pottery has basketry decoration that is impressed
design, there are motifs of kepang, tikar (mat), kain (cloth weaving) and
even a combination of other motifs ( F i g . 2 : a — f ) . In the bottom surface of the vessel, there are traces of the inner grain of the t r u n k o f the palm tree, w h i c h was used as an anvil in the process of making the vessel and the basket was used as a foundation.
T h e other site of pottery is not yet k n o w n for certain, because the sherds are so tiny, so as to create difficulty in imagining w h a t their original shapes could have been.
T h e other sites are Den O m b o , Wingko Sigromulyo and A y a m p u t i h , but complete vessels have not yet been f o u n d . T h e r e are rim sherds, but
we still are not certain w h a t their original shapes must have been because no complete pot was f o u n d .
So all of those sites, need intensive study and I suggest that in the near future it is very important to undertake excavation at those sites.
IV. T h e Decorated Sherds
T h e r e are t w o techniques of decoration on pottery or sherds, those are impressed and incised designs. Between them, the incised design is most dominant compared to the other, and there are so many motifs. Sometimes impressed and incised decoration are used together. T h e r e are similar motifs both on pottery found in our sites and areas in Central Java as well as in other places outside Java.
In the Den Ombo site, sherds show a combination between im-pressed and incised. Imim-pressed design consists of several small circles w h i c h measure from 0 , 5 to 1,0 C m apart from each other, and are arranged in a row under the rim. T h e row of circles are bordered by two incised parallel lines one on top of another. T h e other variation of this motif is impressed design w i t h o u t the t w o border lines. T h e small circles are deeply cut so that they look like small holes through the walls of the vessel ( F i g . 3 : a — b). T h e sherds from the Gunung Wingko site have various motifs, either impressed or incised, or a combination of both.
T h e impressed designs, consist of various motifs which result from the impression left in the surface of the pots in the process of
manu-facture. T h e r e are various motifs w h i c h I would term as:
zywvutsrponmlkjihgfedcbaYWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
hias kain,hias tikar, hias kepang jalur sedang, hias kepang jalur besar plus acombinati-on of these motifs. Hias kain is the impressed design left on the vessel
surface by cloth ( F i g . 2: f ) , while the rest of the motifs are designs made f r o m plaited materials as basket w o r k and mats. Now I shall make the
distinctions between hias tikar, hias kepang jalur sedang and hias kepang
jalur besar. A l l of these are motifs left by the impression of some forms of plaited material.
Hias tikar is the simplest, involving only single interweaving of strips ( F i g . 2 : d ) . Hias kepang is a complex variation of hias tikar involving this time in interweaving t w o strips at a time producing a diagonal pattern
(Fig. 2: a — b). Further variation of hias kepang are hias kepang jalur
se-dang and hias kepang jalur besar w h i c h merely involves the change in the
w i d t h of the plaited strips. Hias kepang jalur sedang has narrower strips
than hias kepang jalur besar.
in a slanting position, c h e v r o n , finger nail print,
zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaYXWVUTSRPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA
comb motifs, e t c T h efish bone motif usually is scratched on the shoulder close t o the juncture
o f the main body o f the vessel. It sometimes runs horizontally, some
-times vertically. T h e y are arranged in double or single rows either at the
neck or on the main body. T h e fish bone motif is usually scratched at
the shoulder in horizontal position in t w o s and sometimes when found
on the body scratched parallel to each other vertically. In other vessels the fish bone motif is found on the shoulder scratched horizontally on
the body in a single row. S t i l l on other sherds the fish bone motif is
scratched vertically on the neck bordered by two parallel lines, or combined w i t h slanting parallel lines ( F i g . 4: a — d ) .
T h e net motif usually is scratched on the rim, shoulder and upper body. It is scratched vertically, flanked by t w o or three parallel lines in the same position. It is found at the outer part of the rim, and on the main body of the vessel. S o m e t i m e s the net motif is used by itself ( F i g . 4 : e - i).
T h e parallel line motif is used vertically and found on the main body of the vessel. S o m e t i m e s , vertically arranged parallel lines are combined together w i t h w h a t looks like chevrons w i t h their appexes not quite connected at their tips ( F i g . 5 : a — f ) .
T h e chevron motif is also f o u n d on the main body of pots. It is also used combined w i t h parallel lines. Sometimes they are arranged so that they suggest a fish bone motif ( F i g . 4 : b and j ) , and sometimes the chevron motif is used by itself ( F i g . 5 : g — h ) .
T h e fingernail print motif is rarely encountered compared to other decoration or motifs. It is scratched in single or double rows ( F i g . 3 : e - f ) .
T h e comb motif appears bordered by t w o parallel" lines vertically or flanked above and below by horizontal lines and sometimes the comb motif is used by itself ( F i g . 3 : g
sliVOMLIC
— j ) .Another motif is a combination of impressed and incised parallel lines arranged vertically. T h e w a y the points are applied and distributed on the surface can make this motif another type of impressed design. T h i s decoration is found at the shoulder, and main part of the body of vessel. But this type of decoration is found o n l y on a small amount of sherds ( F i g . 3 : d).
A l l of these decorated sherds were excavated on a depth of 2 0 0 to 3 0 0 c m . below the surface in association w i t h other finds as mentioned above. T h e sherds of various designs and t h e plain ones were f o u n d
a depth of 0 - 3 5 0 cm below the surface on the area of 130 m2. T h e r e
were found a total of 3 9 8 . 5 0 0 pieces of various sherds w i t h 3 . 5 0 0 kgs. of weight.
T h e Wingko Sigromulyo motifs are characterized by the use of paddle marks. T h e r e are only a few motifs and they look very simple compared to those of Gunung Wingko. Among the impressed motifs the fish bone motif was also f o u n d . What is interesting is that they have similar decorative motifs but differ in the technique used. T h e other motif f o u n d on Wingko Sigromulyo sherds are chevrons, combined w i t h parallel lines arranged horizontally ( F i g . 7: a and c ) . Another motif of Wingko Sigromulyo are a series of parallel lines combined w i t h some carved lines all of them arranged horizontally ( F i g . 7: b).
T h e A y a m p u t i h motif looks very close to those of Wingko Sigro-m u l y o . Here, the Sigro-motif is richer. T h e siSigro-milarities are found in fish bone and parallel lines. We found chevron motif in double rows w i t h very good and clear impression of the paddle marks. Sometimes the chevron are in a series of rows ( F i g . 6 : d — h).
V . T h e Similarities of Decorative Motifs in Other Areas
Based on our d i s c r e t i o n we can classify the findings into three groups; these are "Den Ombo, Gunung Wingko and A y a m p u t i h type com-plexes. E a c h type has similarities w i t h pieces in other areas either in Central J a v a and several other areas in J a v a and even outside J a v a , in-cluding sherds w h i c h came from temple areas.
T h e site of Mujan is located in the regency of Purbalingga, district of Bobotsari, Central Java. T h e Mujan motif consists of circles in a series, or scratched in t w o rows, w i t h parallel lines running horizontally above as border. T h e technique used is incised design rather than the ones f o u n d in Den O m b o w h i c h is a combination of incised and impressed motifs. T h e small circles horizontally arranged below the rim are im-pressed while parallel lines along the rim as well as other parallel and diagonal lines are incised ( F i g . 3 : a and c ) .
A n o t h e r type complex of decorated sherds which has similarities w i t h Mujan is Gunung Wingko and Gunung Piring on the south coast of L o m b o k Island (Goenadi, 1 9 7 8 : 28 - 2 9 ) . Among the three sites, Gu-nung Wingko covers a larger area, and all of the motifs f r o m the three sites show that they were all incised. T h e motifs w h i c h were found in all of the three sites are: net motif, parallel lines and chevron motif, except for finger nail print motif w h i c h is found only in Gunung Wingko.
fable area over 5 K m s . long and half K m . wide used as late as the pre-historic period. B u t we can not tell how long the site was occupied, and it is therefore more difficult to speculate on such issues as migration of people along the south coast of J a v a , the social structure, the site and its relationship to pottery, technology, etc.
A t this point it is important to stress that research on pottery should be extended all along the south coast of Java beyond Pacitan and Cilacap as far to the north and even on the coastal areas of other islands o f the Indonesian archipelago. In this w a y we can get data about the migration of people and technology specially in the late prehistoric period. Archaeological activities on pottery must be done w i t h labora-t o r y examinalabora-tion of wares and also by comparison w i labora-t h polabora-tlabora-tery in olabora-ther areas.
Based on the preliminary study of decoration it seems that there are three culture complexes in the south coast of Java between Pacitan and Cilacap, namely: the Den Ombo c o m p l e x , the Gunung Wingko and A y a m p u t i h . E a c h of them has its special set of motifs, although they have some similarities and differences among them.
T h e paddle decoration seems to be widespread either on the south coast or on the other inland areas in Central Java. But we do not know w h e n it was first used and the date of its last usage. But the paddle decoration from several temples is very helpful in order to guess the date when paddle decoration was used. We know that the Borobudur was built in the beginning of the 9th century, while Prambanan and Plaosan date from the middle of the 10th century (Bernet Kempers, 1959: 4 1 — 6 2 ) . So it can be said that the paddle decoration was used about that time.
In the e x c a v a t i o n , sherds were found in big amounts as was the case in Gunung Wingko. T h i s brings up several problems. T h e r e are just too m a n y sherds that keep piling up in our storage rooms as more sites are excavated. A f t e r the sherds are analyzed, data from thousands and thousands of specimens need to be organized, systematized and com-pared. T h e problem arises of what w o u l d be the best w a y of analyzing the sherds and the data w h i c h increase after each excavation. We meet this problem not o n l y in the Gunung Wingko site, but also in the T r o -w u l a n , G i l i m a n u k , Banten sites, etc.
T o solve this problem I suggest that we must take advantage of modern technology like the computer. We should t r y to computerize the analysis o f sherds in order to get more complete data in a faster w a y . We hope that the result w i l l be useful in reconstructing pottery specially w h e n m a n y broken pieces are the o n l y evidence available. If we get to
k n o w as to how the complete or w h o l e vessels must have looked like, it is possible to get more data such as dating, demographic information and so m a n y other data.
Bibliography
Bernet K e m p e r s , A . J .
1 9 5 9
