FOR THE
K
USAAL
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ANGUAGE
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RITTEN BY: J
OHNB
ERTHELETTEContents
0 Introduction and Goals of the Survey
1 General Information
1.1 Language Classification 1.1.1 Language Location 1.1.2 Description of Location 1.2 Population
1.3 Accessibility and Transport
1.3.1 Roads: Quality and Availability 1.3.2 Public Transport Systems 1.3.3 Trails
1.4 Religious Adherence 1.4.1 Spiritual Life 1.4.2 Catholic Activity 1.4.3 Protestant Activity
1.4.4 Language Use Parameters Within Church Services 1.5 Schools/Education
1.5.1 Types, Sites, and Size
1.5.2 Attitude toward the Vernacular in Public Schools 1.6 Facilities and Economics
1.6.1 Supply Needs 1.6.2 Medical Needs
1.6.3 Occupations and Commercial Ventures 1.7 Traditional Culture
1.7.1 Social and Religious Practices 1.7.2 Attitude toward Culture
1.8 Linguistic Work in the Language Area 1.8.1 Materials Published in the Language 1.8.2 History of Literacy in the Agole and Tonde
1.8.3 Suitability of Existing Written Materials in the Tonde Dialect Area
2 Methodology 2.1 Sampling
2.2 Lexicostatistic Survey 2.3 Dialect Intelligibility Survey 2.4 Questionnaires
3 Comprehension and Lexicostatistical Data (between villages) 3.1 Reported Dialect Groupings: Results from Questionnaires and Interviews
3.2 Results of the Recorded Text Tests
3.3 Lexical Similarity Results: Percentages of Apparent Cognates 3.4 Summary
4 Multilingual Issues
4.1.2 Adults’ Language Use 4.2 Language Attitudes as Reported
5 Recommendations with Regards to a Language/Literacy Project
Appendix
1 Population Data
2 Questionnaire Responses 3 A Word List of Kusaal Dialects
Bibliography
1 References
The Kusaal Survey Report
0 Introduction and Goals of the Survey
This report deals with the findings of a survey carried out by Carol and John Berthelette and Sonja Anderhalden among the Kusaal language group in April 1996. The Burkina Faso administration of the Société Internationale de Linguistique has for a number of years considered Kusaal's western dialect (known as tonde)1 a definite candidate for language development, despite Kusaal's eastern dialect (known as agole) already having been developed in Ghana. The survey had as its goal to gather certain information on the Kusaal ethnic group, such as:
♦ finding out more about their geographic and demographic setting;
♦ determining the inherent intelligibility between the agole and tonde dialects as well as insights into the attitudes of tonde (western) speakers towards agole (eastern);
♦ discovering their attitudes toward their own language variety, the vitality of the language, and the presence of other dialects.
1 General Information
1.1 Language Classification
Kusaal falls under the following classification: “Niger-Congo, Atlantic-Congo, Volta-Congo, North, Gur, Central, Northern, Oti-Volta, Western, Southeast, Kusaal” (Grimes 1992:175). In the Ethnologue, a book published by the Summer Institute of Linguistics including information on all of the known languages of the world, its code is “KNU”. The language is most closely related to Dagbani and Mampruli (Naden 1989:145), but is also closely related to Frafra (also known by the names Ninkaré or Gurenne) and Mooré. According to Prost, the similarity to Mooré is great, much more similar to Mooré than is Dagaara (Prost 1979:2).
1.1.1 Language Location
The Burkina Faso Kusaal region is located in the country's southeastern corner, in the province of Boulgou. However, the great majority of the Kusasi (the name given to the speakers of the language) are found in northeastern Ghana. In Burkina Faso, the neighboring language to the west is Ninkarsé (a related dialect of Frafra); and to the north and east the Bissa. In Ghana, the Kusaal ethnic group is located in the Upper East district, and north of the Gambaga Scarp (Spratt 1968:1). The Kusasi's neighboring languages to the west are the Frafra, Nabdem, and Talensi;to the south is the Mamprusi; and to the east are the Bimoba and Moba. The Kusaal language area in Burkina Faso is roughly 700 km2, while in Ghana it is approximately 3,300 km2. See the map in figure 1.1.2.1 for further details.
1Père Mélançon referred to the dialect as “twen”. In later research, A. Prost found that
1.1.2 Description of Location
In Burkina Faso, the Kusasi people are found to the south and east of the central (Mossi) plateau. The area is somewhat hilly, and the general impression is that farmlands in the region are only fair. Laclavère, in his atlas of Burkina Faso, places the Kusaal in the range of the tree- vs. bush-marked areas of the country (Laclavère 1993:18), although this area may have certain patches of rather dense “dry” wooded areas. Regarding rainfall, the Kusaal area averages between 900 and 1,000 mm annually (Laclavère 1993:16).
The farmland in Ghana appears to be somewhat better, and to be sure, has a slightly higher annual rainfall. What is most striking about the Ghanaian region is that the White (Nakanbé) and Red (Nazinon) Volta Rivers pass through it, the White Volta being in general the boundary between the tonde and agole regions.
Figure 1.1.2.1
1.2 Population
To our knowledge, there are 15 Kusasi villages in Burkina Faso, all of which are located in Boulgou Province's Zabré and Zoaga Departments. Simply
calculating the Burkina Kusasi population according to the 1985 Burkina census (INSD 1991),and assuming a 2.68% population growth rate (Laclavère 1993:24), one arrives at a rounded figure of 17,000. It is extremely doubtful, however, that all of the Kusasi villages are made up only of Kusaal speakers: at the villages visited, we learned of the presence of members of neighboring people groups. Therefore, the total Kusasi-speaking population probably does not exceed 16,000. See table 1.1 in the appendix for a list of known Kusaal-speaking villages in Burkina Faso and their populations, as listed in the 1985 Burkina Faso Census Report.
The great majority of the Ghanaian Kusasi live in the Upper East Region. Nevertheless, we have two unresolved problems with the statistics available to us. We are forced to assume first that the White Volta River functions as the general boundary throughout the Ghanaian Kusaal territory; and are forced to use
population statistics which date from 1988. What is more reliable in these statistics is the more precise breakdown of ethnic groups for each locality.Thus, we calculate there were approximately 245,000 Kusasi in the Bawku Administrative District
(Ghana Evangelism Committee 1988:4/1–4/30). In the Upper East Region, there is an estimated 3.09% growth rate (Adams 1993:105), which would put the Kusasi current population at least 353,000. It would seem that around 72% of the total Kusasi population in Ghana are agole speakers. Table 1.2.1 contains a summary of the population statistics. See table 1.2 in the appendix for a list of Kusaal-speaking villages in Ghana and their populations.
Table 1.2.1
Population Estimates for the Kusasi
Population from the mid 1980s
Projected 1997 Population2
Percent of Total Kusasi Population
Eastern Kusasi (agole) in Ghana 184,671 253,646 71.6%
Western Kusasi (tonde) in Ghana 60,686 83,353 23.5%
Western Kusasi (tonde) in Burkina Faso
12,463 17,118 4.8%
Total Western Kusasi (tonde) 73,149 100,471 28.4%
Totals 330,969 454,588
2Projected 1997 population with a growth rate of 3.09% in Ghana and 2.68% in
1.3 Accessibility and Transport
1.3.1 Roads: Quality and Availability
In Burkina Faso, travel into the general Kusaal-speaking area is possible via Route 12 (from Zabré). In Ghana, access is provided mainly through the east/west Bolgatenga/Bawku and north/south Nakpanduri/Bawku roads. All of these roads appear to be fairly well-maintained. However, direct travel between the majority of Kusaal villages—which are a distance from main roads—can be difficult for a car or truck, as the interior roads are not always regraded each year. Aside from the villages located close to the major roads, travel within the area by 4-wheel vehicles is limited, especially during the wet season.
1.3.2 Public Transport Systems
Bush taxis are rare along Route 12 between Burkina Faso and Ghana. There is, however, fairly easy transportation along the Bolgatenga/Bawku road in Ghana, providing a good possibility for contact between the agole and tonde regions.
1.3.3 Trails
Trails join many of those villages not near the major roads. A trail, for example, exists from Youngou (Burkina Faso) to Bawku (Ghana), 25 kilometers away. These trails are mainly used for those on foot and on bicycle. 4-wheel vehicles often have quite a difficult time on these trails.
1.4 Religious Adherence
1.4.1 Spiritual Life
In both Burkina Faso and Ghana, the traditional religion continues to have a very strong influence among the Kusasi. In both Youga and Binaba, respondents to our questionnaires affirm that followers of the traditional religion are more numerous than both Christians and Muslims. We must also presume that among Christians and Muslims, there are those who continue to practice the traditional ancestral devotion and sacrifices. More quantitative estimates are available for Ghana. According to the Ghana Evangelism Committee's statistics for the Upper East and West Districts, 73% of the population still practice the traditional religion (Adams 1993:103).
In Burkina Faso, the Kusasi have only begun to adopt Islam in the middle part of this century, according to the Catholic catechist in Youga. They are a quite small minority, numerically a much smaller group than both followers of traditional
1.4.2 Catholic Activity
The Roman Catholic Church has been in the region for a number of years. Yet in Burkina Faso, there are only three villages with a Roman Catholic chapel, and in Ghana approximately 30 (out of 260 villages). There is thus not a great amount of Roman Catholic influence among the Kusasi. See table 1.3 in the appendix for a list of Roman Catholic Churches among the Kusasi in Burkina Faso, and table 1.4 for a list of those in Ghana.
1.4.3 Protestant Activity
We know of Protestant congregations in Bingo, Bougouré, Youga, Zama, and Zoaga, as well as in Youngou, where there is a Kusasi minority.
In Ghana, a large number of denominations work among the Kusasi. See table 1.3 in the appendix for a list of Protestant churches among the Kusasi in Burkina Faso, and table 1.4 for a list of those in Ghana.
1.4.4 Language Use Parameters Within Church Services
Among both the Roman Catholic and Protestant churches in Burkina Faso, Mooré and Kusaal are both used during the services. In the case of the Roman Catholic and Assemblies of God congregations at Youga, Mooré is used for the reading of the Scripture portions, for prayer and for some singing. As for the Assemblies of God congregation in Bingo, Kusaal plays a more central role. Regarding the situation in Ghana, we do not have information on language use.
1.5 Schools/Education
1.5.1 Types, Sites, and Size
While there are encouraging signs in the area of primary education
nationwide, it is available to a somewhat limited number of Burkina Faso Kusasi children. Of the 15 Kusaal villages in the southern area, only 4 have primary schools. While other areas of Burkina Faso have had many schools opened since 1980, there has been only one opened in the Kusaal region. According to MEBAM statistics of 1994–1995, 37.3% of Boulgou Province's boys attended school, while only 24.6% of girls attended.3 See table 1.5 in the appendix for a list of primary schools in Kusaal-speaking villages in these provinces.
In primary education, a great deal remains to be done in Burkina Faso both in encouraging the attendance of girls as well as in increasing the number of places for children. As is the case throughout the country, middle and high schools are much less common. The closest middle and high schools for Kusasi children are in Zabré.
3Boulgou Province lies on the lower end of the scale if one is to compare their rate of
In the Kusaal region of Ghana, the primary education situation appears
somewhat more encouraging. Just over 100 of the 260 villages/towns have primary schools, and some of these towns have more than one. It appears as well that Ghanaian students have greater opportunities to attend junior secondary school than do Burkina Faso students leaving CM2, judging from the responses of school teachers in Binaba.
Concerning adult literacy in Kusaal, none is carried out in Burkina Faso. The organization Pag-La-Yiri is involved in literacy in the Kusaal area, and its classes are in Mooré. Despite the use of Mooré in these centers, the program's coordinator in the department of Zabré, Molle Sarato Gouba, states that the program has had good response. Seven Kusaal villages were known to have Initial Literacy classes and 4 have classes in Advanced Literacy. Two-thirds of those enrolled are women, and of those enrolled, 75% pass (Gouba 1996, personal conversation). The Pag-La-Yiri program is not necessarily tied to Mooré, however. Again according to the
Director, if there were teaching guides, primers, and post-literacy materials, Pag-La-Yiri would be very willing to help in Kusaal literacy.
Across the border, it appears that various agencies are involved in literacy in the vernacular. As we shall see later, at least some villages carry out a period of primary education in Kusaal. Furthermore, at least two organizations carry out adult literacy. It appears that the Bawku East District's Non-formal Educational Program has had a fair amount of success. In the West District, the organization Action Aid has been involved in adult literacy. In carrying out their program, Action Aid
concluded that materials should be developed in tonde; that decision has had much influence in the Kusaal literacy scene. In summary, the Ghana Institute of
Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translations (GILLBT) reported in 1996 that there were 120 teachers of Kusaal in two levels, Basic and Advanced, with over 3670 students enrolled (GILLBT 1996).
1.5.2 Attitude toward the Vernacular in Public Schools
As is the case elsewhere in Burkina Faso, schoolmasters in the public school system do not use the vernacular in their classes; French is the language of
instruction. Only with the very beginning students will teachers use Kusaal, according to a teacher in Bingo.
In Ghana, however, at least certain villages and perhaps many, conduct beginning primary education in the vernacular, in what is apparently a similar program to the recently developed Ecoles Satellites program in Burkina Faso.
1.6 Facilities and Economics
1.6.1 Supply Needs
per month, despite the fact that Bawku is 25 km away. Bingo residents go to market in Zebilla.
Access to these market towns is quite easy for those on two-wheel
transportation. As for villages further from major roads, we can only assume that they become very difficult to reach, especially in the wet season.
1.6.2 Medical Needs
Pharmacies are located in the larger towns, such as Mong Naba and Youga. The closest hospital is in Zabré, a Bissa town.
1.6.3 Occupations and Commercial Ventures
There are very few Kusasi who are not farmers; for the most part, extra income comes only from selling any cash crops (such as cotton) which one may have
planted. Very few villagers have work on the side.
1.7 Traditional Culture
1.7.1 Social and Religious Practices
There are certain cultural differences between the agole and tonde Kusasi, examples cited being the number of days for the celebration of a funeral ceremony and traditional dances (Abenim 1996, personal conversation). Marriages are permitted between agole and tonde speakers, as well as with Mossis and Bissa. Comparing the Kusasi with other ethnic groups, Robert and Nancy Schaefer believe the former are rather decentralized (Schaefer 1996, personal conversation).
1.7.2 Attitude toward Culture
The Kusasi have a positive attitude towards their culture; they appear to be content with their cultural practices. Both agole and tonde are proud of the distinctness of their cultures. Nevertheless, tonde speakers report that there has been a certain amount of outside influence which has penetrated into agole
language and customs (Abenim 1996, personal conversation). The tonde assert that they are the keepers of the purer forms. This is not unlikely, as Bawku is a
multicultural center. Another difference concerns the agole area in general having more wealth than the tonde area, as well as having a larger core of educated Kusasi. A final difference appears to be less of a “spirit of volunteerism” among the tonde; they do not come together as readily to accomplish goals (Awimbille 1996, personal conversation).
1.8 Linguistic Work in the Language Area
1.8.1 Materials Published in the Language
In the area of linguistics, the agole dialect of Kusaal has received the most attention. Researchers by the name of G. Cansdale and R. S. Rattray carried out initial analysis (Spratt 1968:2). Père Mélançon did research in the field of etymology and comparatives (Prost 1979:2). André Prost did a phonological analysis, this on the tonde dialect.
David and Nancy Spratt of the Summer Institute of Linguistics began work among the Kusasi in 1962 (Spratt 1968:2), initially spending at least two years in the tonde region, before moving on to the agole dialect region. There they helped in the development of basic reading materials, a short Kusaal-English dictionary, a
phonological summary, as well as translations of Christian Scripture. At this time, the following post-literacy books have been published: a beginning and advanced primer, two books on folk tales, two on proverbs, one on riddles, a how-to book, and one publication for bridging into English. In 1995, a revision of the New Testament was completed.
In the late 1980s, Action Aid published a primer in the tonde dialect. There are apparently certain other materials that have been produced in that dialect.
Unfortunately, the bibliographical material is not available for many of these materials. Furthermore, information on any research carried out by university students is unavailable. See section 2 of the bibliography for a list of certain materials for which we have bibliographical references.
There is a noticeable lack of materials—especially in the way of teaching helps—in French.
1.8.2 History of Literacy in the Agole and Tonde
Michael Awimbille, an agole speaker, has been working in Kusaal literacy for the Ghana Institute of Linguistics, Literacy and Bible Translation (GILLBT) for the last 15 years. He offers the following history of literacy work in Kusaal and offers his interpretation of the present state of affairs.
In the 1960s, the Spratts first settled in a Zebilla, a tonde village. After 3 years, they moved their work to the agole region for the following reasons: they realized that the majority of Kusasi were speakers of agole; that the majority of Kusasi Christians were agole; and that the economic and political center was Bawku, an agole village. During their stay in the Kusasi region—from the late 1960s to 1977— little was done in literacy. When they left, they passed down the literacy task to the churches of the area.
1989, both agole primers and the New Testament were used throughout in the tonde area without major questions raised.
Awimbille states that the certain government/administrative decisions began to create a desire for materials in tonde. The 1989–1990 creation of the Western Bawku District, a new political division, was one factor. The Western Bawku District in general comprises the tonde region. Apparently, this autonomy helped to fuel the desire for materials in tonde. Another factor, mentioned previously, was the
involvement of both a government functional literacy program and a
Non-Government Organization, Action Aid, in the Western Bawku District. (Indeed, in the case of the government literacy organ, its publishing certain materials in a second dialect of a language is rare in Ghana. It is noteworthy as well that its practice of paying teachers will be hard for GILLBT, which does not pay, to overcome.)
Further accentuating factors are: first, the present District Executive is quite strongly pro-tonde; second, the Ghanaian government has elevated a tonde chief to the level of paramount chief, a privilege reserved before 1997 to the agole; and third, the revolution in Ghana has created a certain independent spirit, resulting in the tonde feeling justified in asserting their desires. As a final observation, the medium of radio is carried out in both tonde and agole.
In general, Awimbille believes that the tonde's negative attitudes toward the agole speech variety have grown stronger in recent times. He believes that this is in part due to the tonde speakers having the availability of written materials in tonde. But he also ties in a certain desire of tonde speakers to enjoy advantages that the agole have had. With Bawku as the provincial capital, hospitals and schools were built in the agole region. The tonde are now seeking to gain some of these same benefits. He believes that one is more likely to say “I'm tonde” or “I'm agole” than to say “I'm Kusasi”.
To sum up, Awimbille feels that in the present state of affairs it would be very hard for tonde to accept agole written materials. Yet he states that GILLBT would be very reticent to develop materials in tonde, due to its policy of working in only one dialect of a language.
It may be helpful to note that the tonde/agole debate is not necessarily recent. David Spratt has stated that the tonde view their speech variety as being the purer form of Kusaal. He affirmed that the tonde did not widely accept the original New Testament. As may be expected, some tonde speakers were upset that the Spratts moved to the agole region (Spratt 1994, correspondence).
1.8.3 Suitability of Existing Written Materials in the Tonde Dialect Area
Several people consulted offer opinions about agole materials.
♦ The Anglican pastor in Binaba, Ghana claims to have problems in reading the Agole 1976 version of the New Testament; he is hoping that there is an improvement with the revised version. He claims that certain church
Testament, though finding the personnel required is a major stumbling block.
♦ Lesli Reitzeger, a literacy worker in the early 1980s in Bawku, reports tonde speakers having problems with agole materials (Groff 1983:7).
♦ A further problem was cited by Robert and Nancy Schaefer,
linguist/translators in the area. They claim that before a translation was carried out in Kusaal, the Mooré New Testament was used. During this time, certain Mooré terms became entrenched in church language. It is unclear to what extent the revised New Testament corrected this outside influence.
♦ Related to the above, a difficult area to evaluate is the potential confusion caused by influences of the country's official language. This factor may affect comprehension and possibly attitudes toward the message, and apparently has the greatest influence through proper names. (A Kusasi teacher in Burkina Faso mentioned this problem.) For example, in Ghana, where the official language is English, proper names may be anglicized to a degree in its translations. Likewise, in Burkina Faso, names may have a French influence. Furthermore, what confusion is caused by differences in the accepted orthography and alphabet of Ghana, which differ in certain respects from what is practiced in Burkina Faso?
♦ A Kusasi Protestant pastor in Bingo, fluent in Mooré, feels Mooré materials are more effective in reaching Burkina Faso Kusasi than the older agole materials. (We tried an informal experiment with an excerpt of revised materials and he still appeared to have difficulties, while he showed no difficulties in reading from either his Mooré New Testament or a tonde ABC pamphlet.) This pastor states that he would enthusiastically help in a
project to translate Scripture materials into tonde.
♦ Finally, we were able to ask certain questions to a group of 30 literacy teachers during a workshop in Zebilla. They stated that certain words in the agole teaching materials were different, as was the intonation. These
problems were not insurmountable; they nevertheless increased the time it took to teach the material. The instructors at the same time noted attitude problems. Students question why they must learn another language.
A final note concerns written materials in Mooré. According to Catholic and Protestant church leaders in Burkina Faso, certain groups of the Kusasi have difficulties in understanding Mooré.
2 Methodology
2.1 Sampling
In this survey, we wished to gather most of our information from the tonde Kusaal region, as this was the region without written materials. With this goal in mind, we visited the villages of Youga and Bingo in tonde/Burkina Faso and Binaba in tonde/Ghana. We also recorded a text in Bugri, an agole village to the southeast of Bawku, for the intelligibility tests. To explain further, we wished to discover the extent of inherent intelligibility (that is, understanding which is not as a result of learning) between the tonde and agole Kusaal speeches. The key point of the survey would be the testing of the Bugri text in the tonde region.
2.2 Lexicostatistic Survey
To determine the degree of lexicostatistic similarity, we elicited a 230 word word list, a tool which includes words from various parts of speech. These lists were checked by comparing the data given with data received from other Kusaal villages. Section 3 in the appendix contains the data from these word lists.
2.3 Dialect Intelligibility Survey
In order to measure the degree of inherent intelligibility between speakers of the various dialects, we followed the methodology developed by E. Casad (1974), commonly referred to as the Recorded Text Test. The various steps are as follows:
1. A text is elicited from a native speaker of Village A, a text as free as possible from objectionable subject matter and words borrowed from another language.
2. A group of 12–15 questions are developed based on the text. These
questions are recorded in the dialect of Village A and inserted into the text. From six to ten native speakers of the dialect of Village A listen to the text and respond to the questions, in order that any bad or misleading questions can be isolated and removed. The 10 best questions, to which almost all native speakers have responded correctly, are chosen for the final form of the test.
3. The refined text/test of Village A is played in Village B, having recorded Village A's questions in the dialect of Village B. At least 10 speakers in Village B listen to the text, responding to the questions. Their cumulative scores on the recorded test are taken as the percentage of their intelligibility with the dialect of Village A.
with speakers of Village A. Such exposure may allow them to score higher on this test designed to measure inherent (natural) intelligibility. In table 3.2.1, it is the standard deviation column which signals high contact, and therefore learned intelligibility. A high (above 1.6) standard deviation, a result of a wide range of test scores, suggests that some testees have “learned” to understand the speech tested.
Conversely, it is just as important to find candidates who can master the question/answer technique of the Casad methodology. It is sometimes not an easy task among those who have not gone to school. Therefore, in our testing, we took advantage of the presence of CM2 level students in Binaba and Bingo; they were our testees.
Linguists have debated the threshold of comprehension a speaker of one dialect must attain if he is to be reasonably expected to profit from literacy materials and a translation of the Scriptures. An accepted minimum threshold for the Summer Institute of Linguistics is 75% (Bergman 1990:9.5.2).4
In the village of Youga, we also conducted less formal Recorded Text Tests, known as the Rapid Appraisal Recorded Text Test. This procedure, like the one just described, involves playing recorded (and transcribed) stories. However, Rapid Appraisal Recorded Text Test differs in major ways with the methodology just
described. First, the test is conducted not individually but in a group setting, with five or six people listening at once. Second, instead of responding to specific questions drawn from the story, one person of the group is randomly selected to provide a summary of what he/she has heard. In the case of a doubtful response or mistaken facts, a second (and third) person can be chosen to summarize that part of the story. As a third difference, the scoring of the story is not as quantitative: rating is done on a three point scale of very well, partial, or very poor.
2.4 Questionnaires
During the Kusaal survey, both group and individual questionnaires were administered. Concerning the group questionnaire, we questioned two to four men from Bingo concerning both general demographic and general sociolinguistic matters; in Youga and Binaba, we asked only questions dealing with the dialect issue. The subject matter covered by the questionnaires ranged from the ethnic composition and facilities in the area to perceived dialect differences, bilingualism, and language use. The men were chosen by the village’s government
representative, and sometimes the representative himself was included. Due to the surveyors’ not knowing the trade language and a desire to better monitor the
questioning process, the questionnaires were carried out in French in Burkina Faso and in English in Ghana.
4In 1989, the Summer Institute of Linguistics' Area Directors and Vice Presidents
The individual questionnaire was a modified form of the group sociolinguistic questionnaire; the relevant subject matter concerned self-appraisal of competence in Mooré, domains of language use, and language attitudes. Regarding the
administration procedures, 13 subjects were tested, with 9 from Zoaga and 4 from Youga. Please note that in our evaluation of responses, data from the two sites are grouped together due to the small number of subjects from Youga.
As a final point, when possible we also interviewed available school teachers and religious leaders using prepared questionnaires.
Results of these questionnaires form the basis of much of our succeeding discussion on dialect attitudes (3.1) and multilingualism (4). Table 2.1 in the appendix contains a summary of responses to these questionnaires.
3 Comprehension and Lexicostatistical Data (between villages)
3.1 Reported Dialect Groupings: Results from Questionnaires and Interviews
The issue of comprehension between the two dialects is quite divided, and in many cases, divisive. In section 1.8.3, dealing with the suitability of agole written materials in the tonde region, certain opinions were offered. Dealing specifically with the Burkina Faso Kusasi at Bingo and Youga, respondents note that certain words are different in the different speech varieties; a tonde speaker will sometimes need to have agole repeated in order to understand it. From responses to the individual questionnaire, the Kusasi recognize the tonde/agole division. Concerning how well they understand the tonde speech variety from Zebilla, 10 of 13 state that they understand this dialect very well; one subject states that he understands it
somewhat well; while two understand it “a little”. The answers are almost exactly the opposite when asked about the agole speech variety of Bawku: 3 of 13 respondents from the Burkina tonde region state that they understand this dialect very well; two subjects stated that they understand it somewhat well; while 8 understand it “a little”. Finally, dealing with a question targeting attitudes, all 13 subjects state that their preferred dialect is tonde.
On another level, the tonde dialect apparently has less variation from region to region than the agole (Spratt n.d.:1).
3.2 Results of the Recorded Text Tests
Table 3.2.1 shows the results of the Recorded Text Tests (RTT). In short, the Kusasi of Binaba had little difficulty with the stories played, even the agole (Bugri) text. In questioning the test takers afterwards, they recognized in general that the speech variety was different and had less confidence in what they heard. One girl, however, said she had a harder time with the Youga story. In questioning certain adults after the testing, they stated that there are more isolated villages than Binaba. A certain amount of agole is heard in the village, though the low standard deviation does not confirm there being much learned intelligibility.
Concerning the testing at Bingo, scores were lower, but still above the
range of scores and therefore presumably some learned intelligibility. Yet the standard deviation is not excessively high. Residents from Bingo had little trouble with the Binaba (tonde) story.
Table 3.2.1
Results of the Recorded Text Tests in the Kusaal Area
Test
Conducted in:
Text of Which Village:
Number of Females Tested
Number of Males Tested
Percent Comprehen-sion
Standard Deviation5
Binaba Binaba 2 8 100 0.00
Bugri 2 8 94.5 0.57
Youga 2 8 94 0.80
Bingo Youga 2 8 94.5 0.69
Bugri 2 8 80.5 1.23
Binaba 2 8 93 0.51
In RTT testing conducted in 1983 by Randy Groff and Ole Kristensen, similar results were obtained for one of the villages tested (Zoaga, whose score was 77.5%). In the other village tested, the scores were at 89%, which the team took to be the result of hearers being given second chances to listen to segments of stories (Groff 1983:6). As stated above, we were able to carry out a Rapid Appraisal
Recorded Text Test in Youga. In this situation, we had four boys and one girl, all CM2 students at the local elementary school. The results are shown in table 3.2.2. In short, the test takers had little difficulty with either story.
Table 3.2.2
Results of the Rapid Appraisal Recorded Text Test in Youga
Text of Which Village:
How Well the Stories Were Understood:
Comments:
Binaba Very well. Missed
only one or two details.
They recognize that the story is told in their dialect. Adult bystanders also say that it is well-spoken.
Bugri Very well. Missed
only one or two details.
They say it is not as clear as the Binaba story, and recognize that it is not their dialect. Four out of the five say that they sometimes talk with people who speak like that.
5Note: standard deviation is one indicator which signals high contact, and therefore
Please note that we did not test agole speakers with a tonde text, both due to lack of time and because it is rather a moot question, as written materials already exist in the agole speech.
3.3 Lexical Similarity Results: Percentages of Apparent Cognates
Table 3.3.1 displays the percentages of lexical similarity between the three Kusaal villages visited. It goes without saying that the percentages are quite high. While the two tonde villages have a slightly higher percentage of apparent cognates between them than between each and the agole village, it is doubtful that this
difference is statistically significant.
Table 3.3.1
Percentages of Apparent Cognates in the Kusaal Dialects
Youga: Tonde Kusaal (Burkina Faso)
92 Binaba: Tonde Kusaal (Ghana)
88 86 Bugri: Agole Kusaal (Ghana)
In the survey carried out by Groff and Kristensen, they noted approximately the same figures: 96% apparent cognates between Zoaga and Youga, two Burkina Faso tonde villages, and 84% apparent cognates between the agole (Bawku) and the tonde villages (Groff 1983:5). Section 3 in the appendix contains the word list from this survey.
3.4 Summary
On the basis of results of the Recorded Text Test and calculations of lexical similarity alone, there is little justification for the development of the tonde dialect. Results show that there is at least high one-way intelligibility, that is, tonde speakers having little difficulties with the agole variety. In the final analysis, the high level of inherent intelligibility must be weighed against attitudes of tonde speakers to agole.
4 Multilingual Issues
4.1 Language Use Description
4.1.1 Children's Language Use
As a further point, there appears to be little indication of Mooré infiltrating Kusaal. Despite the fact that Zoaga supposedly has the strongest Mooré influence only one respondent of the 13 who answered stated that young people mix Mooré into their Kusaal. All 12 respondents who answered stated that children speak Kusaal as they should; all 12 feel that their grandchildren will still be speaking Kusaal in their villages.
In Ghana, the second language is English. Some children have learned English in day nurseries before entering school.
4.1.2 Adults’ Language Use
In Burkina Faso, the adults use Kusaal for most local situations: at home, when speaking with other Kusasi, even at the local markets. The trade language in the area is Mooré. In general, the Kusasi use Mooré in speaking with non-Kusasi,
especially Bissa and government officials. According to the answers to the individual questionnaires, they also use Mooré (and sometimes French) at the local
dispensary and for formal religious practice.
Eight of those interviewed state that they have opportunity to speak Mooré every day, and in general the Kusasi affirm to have a fairly good functional ability in Mooré. Yet it appears that in areas demonstrating greater proficiency, most Kusasi show either a lack of ability or confidence. According to answers from the individual questionnaires, only 4 of 12 feel competent enough to pray, to correctly use Mooré proverbs or to do calculations rapidly in Mooré. Besides these self-appraisals, both a Catholic catechist in Youga and a school teacher in Bingo state that the young children and women have problems in understanding Mooré.
Some Burkina Kusasi women learn Bissa, due to market contact. There is apparently a fair amount of intermarriage between Bissa and Kusasi in certain villages of the Zabré region, a fact which encourages bilingualism (Monet 1989:4). Some of the adults, too, are literate in French.
In Ghana (Binaba), English is again stated to be the second language of adults. Nevertheless, English is not used every day; it is therefore certain that proficiency falls after one leaves school. Women are reputed to know English better than men.
4.2 Language Attitudes as Reported
The Kusasi are proud of their language. Of the 13 interviewed, all respondents state that it is the most useful language of the region. Most Kusasi interviewed—12 of 13—would prefer to learn to read and write in Kusaal than in Mooré. And it remains the language of the heart, as shown in attitudes toward the preferred languages for religious ceremonies. According to respondents:
♦ 7 of 8 would like to see Kusaal used when communicating with ancestral spirits; 9 of the 9 who answered would prefer to use Kusaal when sacrifices are performed; and 8 of 9 would prefer use of Kusaal during funeral
♦ 13 of 13 state that traditional stories are best stated in the mother tongue.
A slightly lesser majority—5 of 8—would prefer to have Kusaal used in formal group worship, such as, for example, at church.
Yet the Kusasi have no apparent negative attitudes toward their second languages (Mooré in Burkina Faso and English in Ghana). Of the 13 who
responded, 8 stated that they are not bothered by young Kusasi using Mooré in the home. In Burkina Faso, as stated above, literacy classes in Mooré have had a certain degree of success, and in Ghana Kusasi would like to learn English better. Burkina Kusasi also place fairly high importance on learning French, as it is a symbol of prestige.
5 Recommendations with Regards to a Language/Literacy Project
Evaluating the need for development of the tonde Kusaal dialect is an extremely difficult task. Judging from the results of the Recorded Text Test, it
appears that there is a high level of inherent intelligibility on the tondes' part toward agole. Standardization of Kusaal would appear attainable. However, in my opinion, the question of need hinges on attitude. Tonde speakers in part hold very positive attitudes for the purity of their own dialect; in part have negative attitudes toward agole; and in part simply want some of the same advantages that agole speakers have enjoyed.
One cannot predict the result of a development project among the tonde; one cannot pinpoint the extent to which attitudes held by tonde speakers have affected receptivity of agole materials and desire to read. Especially drawing on the religious situation, there are growing congregations in the tonde area, even if we limit the discussion of need to the Kusaal region of Burkina Faso. In view of the traditional link between religious use of a language and general literacy in the community, I recommend that agole materials be adapted to the tonde region of Burkina Faso.6 I believe, therefore, that the effort of developing tonde would be worth it.
6The situation, of course, is complicated by the issue of official language, yet it seems
Appendix
1. Population Data
Table 1.1
List of Kusaal Villages in Burkina Faso
Province Department Village Population
Boulgou Zabré Bourboko 1269
Boulgou Zabré Gonsé 176
Boulgou Zabré Songo 1010
Boulgou Zabré Wilogo 912
Boulgou Zabré Youkouka 386
Boulgou Zoaga Bingo 1008
Boulgou Zoaga Bougouré de Youga 1646
Boulgou Zoaga Dawéga 347
Boulgou Zoaga Koukadouré 130
Boulgou Zoaga Mong-Naba 656
Boulgou Zoaga Tabissi 137
Boulgou Zoaga (?) Youga 917
Boulgou Zoaga Zamé 919
Boulgou Zoaga Zerbogo 167
Boulgou Zoaga Zoaga 2783
Total 12,463
Total with annual increase of 2.68%
17,118
Table 1.2
List of Kusaal Villages in Ghana7
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku West North Tarikom-Tili 1024
Bawku West North Widinaba-Natinga 353
Bawku West North Goziesi-Zebilla 655
Bawku West North Kukogo 584
Bawku West North Kubongo 851
Bawku West North Weari 883
Bawku West North Widiguri 755
Bawku West North Kansorgo 923
Bawku West North Zorong 689
Bawku West North Teshi Natinga 150
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku West North Kperigu 680
Bawku West North Namorgo 638
Bawku West North Saago-Adasiga 746
Bawku West North Agogo-Garayoga 546
Bawku West North Timonde-Nagbego 712
Bawku West North Timonde-Biringo 863
Bawku West North Tandabote 609
Bawku West North Zebila 5103
Bawku West North Aneigo 1243
Bawku West North Yarigu 1323
Bawku West North Amkpaliga 808
Bawku West North Kosongo (Yapala) 1055
Bawku West North Timpolligu I 1185
Bawku West North Sakpare 1097
Bawku West Southwest Sapalugo-Tili 833
Bawku West Southwest Gbantongo-Natinga 732
Bawku West Southwest Zokpapaga
(Azupupunga)
1063
Bawku West Southwest Gumbare Upper 541
Bawku West Southwest Kusanaba Natinga 667
Bawku West Southwest Peri-Zongoiri 958
Bawku West Southwest Buliga 1555
Bawku West Southeast Tili-Natinga 866
Bawku West Southeast Bozunde 1650
Bawku West Southeast Kuboko 1323
Bawku West Southeast Sakom 712
Bawku West Southeast Wiiga 695
Bawku West Southeast Gozezi Part 604
Bawku West Southeast Kyinadabuti 1004
Bawku West Southeast Gogogo-Natinga 1021
Bawku West Southeast Yadabute 477
Bawku West Southeast Tuni 1286
Bawku West Southeast Akoapelliga 856
Bawku West Southeast Yeliwojo 1806
Bawku West Southeast Kamega-Natinga 1425
Bawku West Southeast Gumbo-Binaba 1397
Bawku West Southeast Kpalisako 700
Bawku West Southeast Boya 1256
Bawku West Southeast Kongo 450
Bawku West Southeast Pilibiziago 516
Bawku West Southeast Azoawera 1045
Bawku West Southeast Gumbare-Lower 783
Bawku West Southeast Gori 1374
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku West Southeast Gabuliga 581
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku West Southeast Kopelia Natinga 728
Bawku West Southeast Akuri 1694
Bawku West Southeast Apodabogo 1631
Bawku West Southeast Dagunga 567
Bawku West Southeast Sabeogo 911
60686
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kpatuu 565
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Sinebaga 472
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Shishie (Sisi) 125
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Danvonga 1214
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Boko 81
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bulpielise 443
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Zari 437
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Yapala 533
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Tubong 242
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gozesi 552
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Zotrikuom 1104
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kwatia 762
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugbliela 354
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Duri 263
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Denugu 134
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Dusbuliga Dalakpaliga 1336
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Songure 1080
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Songo 694
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Takori 758
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugrasia 474
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Waadigu 305
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Atampodabogo 484
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Waskugua (Kugri) 708
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kutiskpem 1018
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Mennatinga 507
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Atamidabogo 812
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Goringo (Aloko) 504
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Siiguri 424
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Pialogu 1039
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gbeliginuusi 344
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugri Kpalsako 851
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nisbuliga 671
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Ziseri 869
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Meliga 1110
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Benwoko 864
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nadigiri 566
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Yabrago 2047
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kukomadaa 922
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Tempane Nating 789
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nyosbara 831
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Barboaka 1112
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Garu 2153
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Salogo 570
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Abilatega 557
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gbanterago 1202
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Takpasi Natinga 777
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gbanwbide (Naati) 562
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Tambalogo 379
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Nombokko 1088
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Napaadi 1237
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugzua 1080
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Taraganga 898
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kagbiri Natinga 662
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Wempisi Bugri 632
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kolsabuliga 462
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugsabla 707
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Gomne 163
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Warinyanga 1402
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Zanzribuliga 746
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kugasego Bugri 1250
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kpalog II 1915
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Karatesi Natinga 1487
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Wanwago 946
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kpalsako 1925
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kabonga 1114
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kongo Chief's House 263
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kulko 1151
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bamamburi 303
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Dekuliga (Basuonde) 337
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Sabzundi 1736
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Adgbal 853
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Kolebore 913
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bugri Natinga 863
Bawku East Tempane-Garu Bulpielise-Naboya 956
Bawku East Bawku U/C Nafikoliga-Natinga 488
Bawku East Bawku U/C Gumsi-Natinga 668
Bawku East Bawku U/C Aloko-Goor 546
Bawku East Bawku U/C Zulugu 1494
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpatarigo 967
Bawku East Bawku U/C Belago-Kpokparago 887
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kakasiego 284
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kakasiego & Kaabin 367
Bawku East Bawku U/C Gotisalaga Asalm 223
Bawku East Bawku U/C Belempis Anyagre 1032
Bawku East Bawku U/C Ninsako 1293
Bawku East Bawku U/C Zeego-Tansia 743
Bawku East Bawku U/C Tansia Market 1593
Bawku East Bawku U/C Tansiya Natinga 510
Bawku East Bawku U/C Tambilgu 1210
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kumpalgoga 284
Bawku East Bawku U/C Sakpari-Natinga 671
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bazua 1205
Bawku East Bawku U/C Porunzua 778
Bawku East Bawku U/C Asalige Zaugo 1393
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bankango 860
Bawku East Bawku U/C Binduri Natinga 390
Bawku East Bawku U/C Abillisi 652
Bawku East Bawku U/C Sakapari 153
Bawku East Bawku U/C Tinogo 1805
Bawku East Bawku U/C Narangsadgo 1197
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpalugo-Zombo 753
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kuuya Na-Teng 257
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kabingo 1381
Bawku East Bawku U/C Zorsi-Natinga 933
Bawku East Bawku U/C Winnateng 783
Bawku East Bawku U/C Goseesi 1295
Bawku East Bawku U/C Zabugu 1223
Bawku East Bawku U/C Gowre Agricultural
Station
1455
Bawku East Bawku U/C Manga-Nyorugu 512
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bawku-Sapieliga 516
Bawku East Bawku U/C Boko 516
Bawku East Bawku U/C Binguri 1179
Bawku East Bawku U/C Widnab-Zaugo 843
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kuloko-Suugin 1753
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bazua-Teng 583
Bawku East Bawku U/C Biaka 778
Bawku East Bawku U/C Barigun 1518
Bawku East Bawku U/C Sapeliga Tegbila 988
Bawku East Bawku U/C Yagure 1105
Bawku East Bawku U/C Nyorugo 808
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpelewega 518
Bawku East Bawku U/C Natinga-Nayoko 1114
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bawku 16950
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku East Bawku U/C Zongo 2151
Bawku East Bawku U/C Buabula 693
Bawku East Bawku U/C Mogonorlor Gumbo 1415
Bawku East Bawku U/C Wiidi 1153
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpalugu Zorsi Forest
Reserve
1010
Bawku East Bawku U/C Abakanga Zorsi 1654
Bawku East Bawku U/C Tampiigogo 733
Bawku East Bawku U/C Sapeliga-Natinga 412
Bawku East Bawku U/C Guzongo (Guzaligo) 581
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bangabuk/Bansi 1839
Bawku East Bawku U/C Zorsi-Nating 1485
Bawku East Bawku U/C Gombo-Mognori 1421
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kpalugu 1120
Bawku East Bawku U/C Baribari 196
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kampont 512
Bawku East Bawku U/C Kampont 109
Bawku East Bawku U/C Zopeligo 450
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bador 163
Bawku East Bawku U/C Gumakutari 264
Bawku East Bawku U/C Mogonori 443
Bawku East Bawku U/C Yarigungu 844
Bawku East Bawku U/C Galaka 260
Bawku East Bawku U/C Galaka Natinga 456
Bawku East Bawku U/C Asam 353
Bawku East Bawku U/C Sapelliga-Natinga 478
Bawku East Bawku U/C Bugula-Kare 1393
Bawku East Bawku U/C Yirongo 401
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zuli 738
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Gago 1128
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Azirem 451
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zambala (West) 543
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zambala (East) 725
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Bugri Natinga (East) 1306
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Arizem (North) 449
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kuka (North) 1065
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Bugpiigu 1367
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Dabia 913
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Lalsaa 698
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Gbeogo 1015
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Yumboku 835
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zabugunatinga 834
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Goseesi 398
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Dega 1230
District Section of District Village Population
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zoabuliga 1896
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Pialoko 1107
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nakambo 1834
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nakom 843
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nakambo (East) 926
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kamsori Tarivago 625
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zong-Natinga 604
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Vorekuom 1077
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kyinchingu 113
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kugasegu 1244
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Natinga 1111
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Terago 929
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Nenkogo 744
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Bulugu 565
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Olo Chief's Area 1079
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kulugungu 434
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Ninkogo 1787
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Kolnaba 396
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Zongo 754
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Natinga 145
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Pusiga Market 752
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Mandago-West 1405
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Yariga 202
Bawku East Pusiga-Pulimakom L/C Widana 646
Total Bawku East: 184,671
Table 1.3
Christian Churches in the Burkina Faso Kusaal Region
AG= Assemblies of God AN= Anglican
LU= Evangelical Lutheran ME= Methodist
PE= Church of Pentecost
PR= Presbyterian RCC= Roman Catholic SD= Seventh-Day Adventist SP= smaller “spiritual” or independant African church
Province Department Village Christian Churches
Boulgou Zoaga Bingo AG
Boulgou Zoaga Bougouré AG RCC
Boulgou Zoaga Youga AG RCC
Boulgou Zoaga Zamé AG
Table 1.4
Christian Churches and Mosques in the Ghana Kusaal Region
District Village Church (Protestant and
Roman Catholic)
No. Of Mosques
Bawku East Abakanga Zorsi 4
Bawku East Abillisi 1
Bawku East Arizem (North) AG 2
Bawku East Asalige Zaugo 2
Bawku East Asam 2
Bawku East Azirem RCC 3
Bawku East Bamamburi 3
District Village Church (Protestant and
Roman Catholic)
No. Of Mosques
Bawku East Bangabuk/Bansi PR 2
Bawku East Baribari 3
Bawku East Barigun 2
Bawku East Bawku AM ME PR AG SD RG
2SP PE
12
Bawku East Bawku-Sapieliga 3
Bawku East Bazua PR RCC 3
Bawku East Bazua-Teng 1
Bawku East Belago-Kpokparago 2
Bawku East Belempis Anyagre PR RCC 1
Bawku East Biaka 1
Bawku East Binduri Natinga RCC 3
Bawku East Boko 1
Bawku East Buabula 6
Bawku East Bugpiigu 1
Bawku East Bugri Natinga (East) PR
Bawku East Bugri Natinga (West) AG RCC 4
Bawku East Bugula-Kare PR 3
Bawku East Bulpielise RCC
Bawku East Bulpielise-Naboya AG 4
Bawku East Bulugu 3
Bawku East Dabia 2
Bawku East Danvonga 7
Bawku East Dega 3
Bawku East Dekuliga (Basuonde) PR AG RCC 2
Bawku East Denugu RCC 3
Bawku East Dusbuliga Dalakpaliga RCC 7
Bawku East Gago RCC 1
Bawku East Galaka 1
Bawku East Galaka Natinga 3
Bawku East Garu PR AG RCC 6
Bawku East Gbanterago 1
District Village Church (Protestant and Roman Catholic)
No. Of Mosques
Bawku East Gombo-Mognori 3
Bawku East Gomne 2
Bawku East Goseesi AG 2
Bawku East Gowre Agricultural Station AG 4
Bawku East Gumakutari 2
Bawku East Gumsi-Natinga 1
Bawku East Kabonga 2
Bawku East Kampont 2
Bawku East Kamsori Tarivago 1
Bawku East Karatesi Natinga PR
Bawku East Kolebore 6
Bawku East Kolsabuliga 4
Bawku East Kongo Chief's House RCC 4
Bawku East Kpalog II PR
Bawku East Kpatia 3
Bawku East Kpatuu PR 1
Bawku East Kugasego Bugri PR
Bawku East Kugasegu 3
Bawku East Kugbliela 1
Bawku East Kugri Kpalsako 2
Bawku East Kugsabla PR 7
Bawku East Kugzua RCC 3
Bawku East Kuka (North) AG RCC 1
Bawku East Kukomadaa PR
Bawku East Kuloko-Suugin PR 2
Bawku East Kulugungu 8
Bawku East Kumpalgoga 1
Bawku East Kwatia 3
Bawku East Kyinchingu 2
Bawku East Lalsaa 1
Bawku East Manga-Nyorugu 3
Bawku East Meliga PR RCC
Bawku East Mennatinga RCC
Bawku East Misiga 2
Bawku East Mogonori 3
Bawku East Mogonorlor Gumbo 4
Bawku East Nafikoliga-Natinga AG RCC 2
Bawku East Nakambo 4
Bawku East Nakambo (East) 3
Bawku East Nakom AG 4
Bawku East Napaadi PR
Bawku East Narangsadgo 1
Bawku East Natinga 16
District Village Church (Protestant and Roman Catholic)
No. Of Mosques
Bawku East Nenkogo PR AG 7
Bawku East Ninkogo 2
Bawku East Ninsako 4
Bawku East Nintabugsugu RCC 4
Bawku East Nisbuliga PR RCC
Bawku East Nombokko RCC
Bawku East Nyorugo 5
Bawku East Nyosbara 2
Bawku East Olo Chief's Area 1
Bawku East Pialoko 1
Bawku East Porunzua 2
Bawku East Pusiga Market PR AG SD RCC 5
Bawku East Sakpari-Natinga 1
Bawku East Salipiga 1
Bawku East Sapeliga Tegbila PR RCC 2
Bawku East Sapeliga-Natinga AG 6
Bawku East Susudi 1
Bawku East Susudi 1
Bawku East Takpasi Natinga 5
Bawku East Tambalogo PR
Bawku East Tambilgu 4
Bawku East Tampiigogo 1
Bawku East Tansia Market 2
Bawku East Taraganga PR 2
Bawku East Tempane Nating PR 2
Bawku East Tesgbego 2
Bawku East Tinogo 4
Bawku East Tubong RCC
Bawku East Vorekuom 7
Bawku East Warinyanga PR RCC 9
Bawku East Waskugua (Kugri) PR RCC
Bawku East Wempisi Bugri 5
Bawku East Widana PR AG RCC 13
Bawku East Wiidi 3
Bawku East Winnateng 1
Bawku East Yabrago PR
Bawku East Yapala PR
Bawku East Yariga 1
Bawku East Yarigungu PR 2
Bawku East Yirongo SP 7
Bawku East Yumboku 5
Bawku East Zabugu RCC ME 2
Bawku East Zabugunatinga RCC 4
District Village Church (Protestant and Roman Catholic)
No. Of Mosques
Bawku East Zambala (West) 3
Bawku East Zanzribuliga 2
Bawku East Zari PR 1
Bawku East Ziseri PR RCC
Bawku East Zoabuliga 2
Bawku East Zong-Natinga 1
Bawku East Zongo 10
Bawku East Zorsi-Nating LU RCC 7
Bawku East Zotrikuom PR
Bawku East Zuli PR 1
Bawku East Zulugu 2
Bawku West Akuri 2
Bawku West Amkpaliga 2
Bawku West Aneigo 2
Bawku West Apodabogo PR
Bawku West Azoawera AN
Bawku West Boya AG
Bawku West Bozunde 1
Bawku West Buliga 1
Bawku West Gbantongo-Natinga AN AG 1
Bawku West Gumbare-Lower AN PR AG RCC 1
Bawku West Gumbo-Binaba 1
Bawku West Kamega-Natinga 1
Bawku West Kongo 1
Bawku West Kopelia Natinga 1
Bawku West Kosongo (Yapala) 2
Bawku West Kusanaba Natinga AN 2
Bawku West Kyinadabuti AG 2
Bawku West Peri-Zongoiri 1
Bawku West Sakpare 1
Bawku West Sapalugo-Tili AN SP
Bawku West Tandabote 1
Bawku West Tarikom-Tili AN
Bawku West Tili-Natinga AG RCC 1
Bawku West Timonde-Nagbego AG 1
Bawku West Timpolligu I 1
Bawku West Weari AN
Bawku West Widiguri 1
Bawku West Widinaba-Natinga AN AG
Bawku West Yarigu 2
Bawku West Yeliwojo 1
Table 1.5
Primary Schools in the Burkina Faso Kusaal Region, 1992–1993
Province Department Village Date of
School Opening
Grade Levels
Total Students: 1992–1993
Number of Girls
Number of Boys
Boulgou Zabré Wilgo 1993 1 36 3 33
Boulgou Zoaga Bingo 1974 3 144 38 106
Boulgou Zoaga Youga 1964 3 109 28 81
Boulgou Zoaga Zoaga 1964 3 225 88 137
Table 1.6
Schools and Literacy Centers in Ghana's Kusaal Region List of Abbreviations
P: Primary School
M: Middle School
JS: Junior Secondary School
MS: Muslim School
KS: Literacy Center for Kusaal
District Village Type of School Literacy
Center
Bawku East Abakanga Zorsi P(2) JS
Bawku East Arizem (North) P JS
Bawku East Azirem P
Bawku East Bangabuk/Bansi KS
Bawku East Barboaka P
Bawku East Baribari MS
Bawku East Barigun P(3)
Bawku East Bawku P(11) M(6) JS(4)
MS(2)
Bawku East Bawku-Sapieliga P
Bawku East Bazua P M
Bawku East Biaka P M
Bawku East Binduri Natinga P M KS
Bawku East Bugpiigu KS
Bawku East Bugri Natinga P M JS
Bawku East Bugri Natinga (East) KS(2)
Bawku East Bugula-Kare P
Bawku East Bulpielise-Naboya KS
Bawku East Bulugu P
Bawku East Dabia P KS
Bawku East Dega P(2)
Bawku East Dekuliga (Basuonde) P
Bawku East Denugu P M JS
District Village Type of School Literacy Center
Bawku East Garu P M JS
Bawku East Gombo-Mognori P
Bawku East Goseesi P
Bawku East Gowre Agricultural Station P(2)
Bawku East Gumakutari P
Bawku East Gumsi-Natinga P JS
Bawku East Karatesi Natinga P
Bawku East Kongo Chief's House P
Bawku East Kpalog II P
Bawku East Kugasego Bugri P
Bawku East Kugasegu KS
Bawku East Kugri Kpalsako P(2)
Bawku East Kugsabla O
Bawku East Kugzua P(2)
Bawku East Kuka (North) P
Bawku East Kulugungu P JS M
Bawku East Kwatia P
Bawku East Lalsaa KS
Bawku East Manga-Nyorugu P JS
Bawku East Mennatinga P
Bawku East Misiga P JS
Bawku East Mogonori P
Bawku East Nafikoliga-Natinga P
Bawku East Nakambo P
Bawku East Nakom P
Bawku East Natinga MS
Bawku East Nenkogo P(2) JS M KS
Bawku East Ninkogo P MS
Bawku East Nisbuliga P
Bawku East Nombokko P
Bawku East Nyorugo P
Bawku East Pialogu P
Bawku East Porunzua P
Bawku East Pusiga Market P(2) JS M 2 MS KS
Bawku East Sakpari-Natinga KS
Bawku East Sapeliga Tegbila P
Bawku East Sapelliga-Natinga P(2) M
Bawku East Sugudi P
Bawku East Tambilgu P
Bawku East Tansia Market P
Bawku East Taraganga P
Bawku East Tempane Nating P M JS
Bawku East Tinogo P(2)
District Village Type of School Literacy Center
Bawku East Vorekuom P
Bawku East Warinyanga P M
Bawku East Waskugua (Kugri) P
Bawku East Wempisi Bugri P
Bawku East Widana P JS M MS
Bawku East Winnateng P(3) JS
Bawku East Yarigungu KS
Bawku East Yirongo P MS JS
Bawku East Yumboku P(2)
Bawku East Zabugu P(2) KS
Bawku East Zabugunatinga P
Bawku East Zoabuliga P(2)
Bawku East Zong-Natinga P
Bawku East Zongo P
Bawku East Zongo P M JS
Bawku East Zorsi-Nating P(2) 2KS
Bawku East Zorsi-Natinga P JS
Bawku East Zuli P
Bawku West Amkpaliga P KS
Bawku West Apodabogo P
Bawku West Boya P
Bawku West Bozunde P
Bawku West Buliga P
Bawku West Dagunga P
Bawku West Gbantongo-Natinga P JS
Bawku West Gori P
Bawku West Gumbare-Lower P JS
Bawku West Gumbo-Binaba P
Bawku West Kamega-Natinga P(3) JS
Bawku West Kansorgo P
Bawku West Kosongo (Yapala) P
Bawku West Kuboko M JS
Bawku West Kubongo P
Bawku West Kukogo P
Bawku West Kusanaba Natinga P
Bawku West Kyinadabuti P
Bawku West Namorgo P JS
Bawku West Peri-Zongoiri P
Bawku West Tandabote P
Bawku West Tarikom-Tili P
Bawku West Teshi Natinga P KS
Bawku West Tili-Natinga P M JS
Bawku West Timonde-Nagbego P
Bawku West Widinaba-Natinga P
Bawku West Yarigu P
Bawku West Yeliwojo P
2. Questionnaire Responses
Table 2.1
A Summary of Responses from the Individual Questionnaires
Sex 6 are female 0 no
answer
Age 0 no
answer
Village 9 from Zoaga, 4
from Youga
0 no answer
Language 13 0 no
answer
Education 7 “yes" 0 no
answer Place lived in for a long period of time (besides home): 6 have gone to
areas where Mooré is spoken (Tenkodogo and Ouagadougou). Two went to Kumassi, Ghana. One went to Côte d'Ivoire, one to Togo, one to Bamako, and one to Zabré.
4 have not spent an
appreciab le time away from the tonde region.
Amount of time lived there: All spent more
than 1 year in these locations.
Birthplace of your spouse: 10 from Tonde
region
0 no answer
Mother tongue of your spouse: 10 “Kusaal" 0 no
answer; 2 Mooré, 1 Bissa
Have you ever gone to Zebilla? 13 “yes" 0 no
answer
Do you speak often with those of Zebilla? 13 “yes" 0 no
answer When you speak with those of Zebilla, what language
do you speak?
12 “Kusaal" 1 no answer
Have you ever gone to Bawku? 12 “yes" 0 no
answer
Do you speak often with those of Bawku? 12 “yes" 0 no
When you speak with those of Bawku, what language do you speak?
8 “Kusaal" 2 no answer; 2 say both Mooré and Kusaal How well can you understand those of Zebilla? 10 of 13 say that
they understand this dialect very well; 1 says that they understand it
How well can you understand those of Bawku? 3 of 13 say that they understand this dialect very well; 2 say that they understand it
What speech is easier to understand: the variety of village 1 or village 2?
0 no What speech is easier to understand: the variety of
village 2 or village 3?
0 no answer What speech is easier to understand: the variety of
village 1 or village 2?
0 no answer What speech is easier to understand: the variety of
village 2 or village 3?
0 no answer What is the language/dialect that you like best? All say tonde 0 no
answer What is the language/dialect that you like least? 1O say only
agole; two add the variety of Tilli or Zoaga to Bawku; one says only Tilli
0 no answer
Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from Tilli?
11 1 no
answer Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from
Zebilla?
12 0 no
Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from Binduri?
10 1 no
answer Would you allow your daughter to marry someone from
Bawku?
12 0 no
answer What was the language you spoke when growing up? 12 “L1" 0 no
answer; one spoke Mooré
Do you speak Mooré each day? 8 “yes" 0 no
answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: go to a
dispensary with a friend and describe in detail his sickness?
12 “yes" 0 no
answer
Would you be able to do the following in L2: understand all that is said in L2 on the radio, even words to songs?
12 “yes" 0 no
answer
Would you be able to do the following in L2: joke and use proverbs?
3 “yes" 0 no
answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: pray? 4 “yes" 0 no
answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: do
calculations very rapidly?
4 “yes" 0 no
answer Would you be able to do the following in L2: speak the
L2 so well that one thinks you are of the L2 ethnic group?
5 “yes" 0 no
answer
What is the language that you use at home? 11 “L1" 0 no
answer What is the language that you use in the village? 13 “L1" 0 no
answer What is the language that you use at the market? 10 “L1" 0 no
answer; What is the language that you use at the dispensary? 3 “L1" 0 no
answer; some say both, some say French What is the language that you use at church/mosque? 2 “L1" 4 no
answer; 2 say both What is the language that you use in carrying out a
sacrifice?
9 “L1" 4 no
What is the language that you use during funeral ceremonies?
9 “L1" 4 no
answer What is the language that you use during initiation
rites?
9 “L1" 4 no
answer What is the language that you use in singing traditional
songs?
Which language do you like best? 13 “L1" 0 no
answer
Why? 0 no
answer Which language spoken in the region is most useful? 13 “L1" 0 no
answer
Why? 0 no
answer How do you feel if you hear your children speaking the
L2 between themselves at home?
5 are bothered 0 no answer Which language you would like to have used at
church/mosque?
5 “L1" 6 no
answer Which language you would like to have used when
communicating with the ancestral spirits?
7 “L1" 5 no
answer Which language you would like to have used during
sacrifices?
9 “L1" 4 no
answer Which language you would like to have used during
funeral services?
8 “L1" 4 no
answer; 1 either/or Would you like to learn to read/write in L2? 10 “yes" 0 no
answer If you were given the choice, would you prefer learning
to read/write in the L1 or the L2?
13 “L1" 0 no
answer
Why? 0 no
answer Have others ever made fun of you because of your
language?
5 “yes" 1 no
answer Have there ever been initiation rites done here in L2? 8 “yes" 1 no
answer Does doing the initiation rites in L2 bother you? 7 “yes" 1 no
answer Which language do the youth use among themselves
most of time?
11 “L1" 1 no
answer Do the youth use L2 even when no outsiders are
around?
1 “yes" 0 no
answer
Do children mix the L1 and L2 when speaking? 0 “yes" 0 no
Do youth mix the L1 and L2 when speaking? 1 “yes" 0 no answer Does it ever happen that your children have to finish
sentences in L2 because they do not know how to say something in L1?
1 “yes" 0 no
answer
Are marriages permitted with those not of the culture? 13 “yes" 0 no answer
If yes, from what other ethnic groups? most say all
(some add “except with Fulani")
1 no answer
Do children use the traditional stories and proverbs? 13 “yes" 0 no answer
If yes, in which language? 13 “L1" 0 no
answer Do you think that the tradional stories and proverbs are
better said in the L1 or the L2?
13 “L1" 0 no
answer Nowadays do the village elders tell the traditional
stories and proverbs?
12 “yes" 0 no
answer Do you believe that your children speak your language
like they should?
12 “yes" 0 no
answer What language are your children's children going to
speak here in the village?
13 “L1" 0 no
