xiv ABSTRACT
Agita, Christophorus Rikko. 2009. Designing A Set of Computer -Based Reading Materials Using Task-Based Learning for The First Grade Students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University
Without ignoring other skills, reading is considered as an important skill to be taught at school since it ensures success not only in learning English, but also in learning any content class where reading in English is required. Unfortunately, the first grade students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta face several problems in learning reading. First, the texts are too long. Seco nd, students have difficulty understanding the vocabulary. Third, the exercises provided are not varied. Lastly, topics of the reading text are not varied.
This study is concerned with designing a set of computer -based reading materials using task-based learning for the first grade students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. There were two problems involved in this study. They were: (1) How is a set of computer-based reading materials using task -based learning for the first grade students of Senior High School of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta designed?, and (2) What does the set of computer -based reading materials using task -based learning for the first grade students of Senior High School of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta look like?.
In order to answer the first question in the Problem Formulation , the writer combined Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional design model. There were six steps to be carried out from the adaptation and combination of those two instructional design models. They are the following: 1) Conducting needs survey, 2) Formulating goals, topics, and general purposes, 3) Formulating general objectives, 4) Selecting teaching learning activities and materials, 5) Constructing a set of computer-based reading materials using task -based learning, 6) Evaluating the set of computer-based reading materials using task -based learning. These steps are in line with first five steps of Educational Research and Development (R&D) cycle. They were, 1) Research and information collecting, 2) Planning, 3) Develop preliminary form of product, 4) Preliminary field testing, and 5) Main product revision.
xv
Based on the results of the post design, the writer concludes that the set of designed materials are appropriate and suitable to be applied to teach reading for the first grade students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. The mean was 4.25.
xvi
ABSTRAK
Agita, Christophorus Rikko. 2009. Designing A Set of Computer -Based Reading Materials Using Task-Based Learning for The First Grade Students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris , Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Tanpa mengabaikan pentingnya skill yang lain, reading dianggap sebagai salah satu skill yang penting untuk diajarkan di sekolah karena dapat menjamin sukses bukan hanya dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris tetapi juga dalam bidang pembelajaran yang lain dima na bahasa Inggris dibutuhkan. Na mun demikian sangat disayangkan karena siswa-siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta mempunyai permasalahan -permasalahan dalam belajar reading. Yang pertama adalah teks yang terlalu panjang. Yang kedua, murid kesulitan untuk mem ahami kosakata. Yang ketiga, latihan -latihan soal yang diberikan kurang bervariasi. Sedangkan yang terakhir adalah topik bacaan yang diberikan kurang bervariasi.
Studi ini berkaitan mengenai penyusunan seperangkat materi pembelajaran reading berdasarkan computer-based dengan menggunakan metode pembelajaran task-based untuk siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Ada dua pertanyaan yang harus dijawab dalam studi ini. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah: 1) Bagaimanakah seperangkat materi pembelajaran reading bersasarkan computer-based dengan menggunakan metode pembelajaran task-computer-based untuk siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta disusun?, dan 2) Seperti apakah seperangkat materi itu?
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama yang tercantum dalam Rumusan Masalah, penyusun mengkombinasikan model desain pembelajaran Kemp dan Yalden. Model yang diadaptasi dari kedua model desain pembelajaran tersebut terdiri dari enam langkah, yaitu, 1) Melakukan survey kebutuhan, 2) Merumuskan tujuan khusus, topic dan tujuan umum, 3) M erumuskan tujuan pembelajaran, 4) Menyeleksi kegiatan dan materi pembelajaran, 5) Menyusun desain materi, 6) Melakukan evaluasi terhadap desain materi. Langkah-langkah tersebut sesuai dengan lima langkah pertama dari Educational Research and Development (R &D) cycle. 5 langkah tersebut yaitu: 1) Penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi, 2) Perencanaan, 3) Pengembangan bentuk awal produk, 4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, 5) Perbaikan materi/produk.
xvii
River, (5) Letter, (6) Wrapping Idea, (7) Kas, (8) First Aid Care: Wound Care Treatment.
Berdasarkan hasil dari post-design, penyusun menyimpulkan bahwa materi yang telah disusun sudah sesuai untuk digunakan untuk mengajar reading siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Nilai rata -rata survey atas materi adalah 4,25.
i
DESIGNING A SET OF COMPUTER-BASED READING MATERIALS USING TASK-BASED LEARNING
FOR THE FIRST GRADE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL OF SMA N 9 YOGYAKARTA
A THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Christophorus Rikko Agita Student Number: 041214112
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
ii A Thesis on
DESIGNING A SET OF COMPUTER -BASED READING MATERIALS USING TASK-BASED LEARNING
FOR THE FIRST GRADE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL OF SMA N 9 YOGYAKARTA
By
Christophorus Rikko Agita Student Number: 041214112
Approved by:
Drs. Y.B Gunawan, M.A 23 March 2009
iii A Thesis on
DESIGNING A SET OF COMPUTER -BASED READING MATERIALS USING TASK-BASED LEARNING
FOR THE FIRST GRADE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL OF SMA N 9 YOGYAKARTA
Yogyakarta, 1 April 2009
iv
STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY
I honestly declare that this thesis, which I wrote, does not contain the work or parts of the work of other people, except those cited in the quotations and the references, as a scientific paper should.
Yogyakarta, 23 March 2009
The Writer
v
LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN
PUBLIKASI KARYA ILMIAH UNTUK KEPENTINGAN AKA DEMIS Yang bertanda tangan dibawah ini, saya mahasiswa Universitas Sanata Dharma:
Nama : Christoporus Rikko Agita
Nomor Mahasiswa : 041214112
Demi pengembangan ilmu pengetahuan, saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Sanata Dharma karya ilmiah saya yang berjudul:
DESIGNING A SET OF COMPUTER -BASED READING MATERIALS USING TASK-BASED LEARNING
FOR THE FIRST GRADE STUDENTS OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL OF SMA N 9 YOGYAKARTA
Beserta perangkat yang diperlukan (bila ada). Dengan demikian saya memberikan kepada Perpustakaan Universitas Sanata Dharma hak untuk menyimpan , mengalihkan dalam bentuk media lain, mengelolanya dalam bentuk pangkalan data, mendistribusikan secara terbatas, dan mempublikasikannya di internet atau media lain untuk kepentingan akademis tanpa perlu meminta ijin dari saya maupun memberikan royalti kepada saya selama tetap mencamtumkan na ma saya sebaga penulis.
Demikian pernyataan ini saya buat dengan sebenarnya. Dibuat di Yogyakarta
Pada tanggal: 27 April 2009
Yang menyatakan,
viii
STATEMENT OF WORK’ S ORIGINALITY ……… …….….
DEDICATION PAGE ……… ……....
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………...
TABLE OF CONTENTS ………...
LIST OF TABLES……….
LIST OF FIGURES ……… ………
LIST OF APPENDICES ………
ABSTRACT ………...
ABSTRAK ... ..
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background of the Study ………
B. Problem Limitation ………
C. Problem Formulation ………..
D. Research Objectives ……… ………
E. Research Benefits ………...
F. Definition of Terms………
CHAPTER II. THEORETICAL REVIEW
A. Theoretical Description ……….
1. Instructional Design Models ……… a. Kemp’s model ……… b. Yalden’s model ………..
2. Curriculum………
a. School-Based Curriculum………..
ix
a. Nature of Task-based Learning ………..
b. Types of Task……….
c. The Framework of Task-based Learning .………..
5. The Reading Skill……….
a. Nature of Reading ………..
b. Reading Process……….
c. Teaching Reading ……… ………..
d. Three Stages in Teaching Reading ……….
e. Reading Task………..
6. Computer Assisted Language Learning ………... a. The Role of the Computer……… ….. b. The Role of the Teacher ………. c. The Advantages of Computer-Based Program………... d. Five Types of Computer Programs………. e. CALL Software Evaluation……….... B. Theoretical Framework ……….…..
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGY
A. Research Methods ………..
B. Research Respondents ……….…...
C. Research Instrument ………..
D. Data Gathering Technique ……….……. E. Data Analysis Technique ………....
F. Research Procedure ……… ………
CHAPTER IV
A. Data Presentation and Description ……….
1. Conducting Needs Survey ……… …
x
77 79
83
95 103
106 106 107 3. Formulating Learning Objectives ………. 4. Selecting Teaching Learning Activities and M aterials ………. 5. Constructing a Set of Computer-Based Reading Materials
Using Task-Based Learning ……… 6. Evaluating the Set of Computer-Based Reading Materials
Using Task-Based Learning ……….
B. Material Presentation ……….
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS
A. Conclusions ………
B. Suggestions ……….
xi
Table 2. 1: CALL Software Evaluation Considerations ………. Table 3. 1:Respondents of the Study ………. Table 3. 2: Summary of the Results of the Pre -design Survey ………... Table 3. 3: TheDescriptive Statistics of Respondents’ Opinion ……… Table 4. 1: Summary of the Results of the Pre-Design Questionnaire……….. Table 4. 2: Summary of the Results of the Post-Design Questionnaire……….. Table 4. 3: The Goal and General Purposes of the Materials ………. Table 4. 4: The Topics of the Materials ……….. Table 4. 5: The Indicators of the Materials ………. Table 4. 6: Learning Activities of the Materials ………. Table 4. 7: JCloze Exercises ………... Table 4. 8: JMatch Exercises ………..
Table 4.9: JQuiz Exercises ………..
Table 4.10: JMix Exercises ……… ……….
xii
Figure 2.1:Kemp’s Model ………..
Figure 2.2:Yalden’s Model ………
Figure 2.3: The Components of the Task Cycle ………. Figure 2.4: Bottom-up Approach to Reading ………. Figure 2.5: Top-down Approach to Reading ……….. Figure 2.6: Interactive Approach to Reading ………..
Figure 2.7: The Ahmad Model ………...
Figure 2.8: The Farrington Model ……….. Figure 2.9: The Writer’s Model ……….. Figure 3.1: R&D Cycle ………...
Figure 3.2: Writer’s Model ……….
Figure 4.1:The Flowchart of the Designed Materials ……… Figure 4.2: Autorun Application ………. Figure 4.3: Front Page user Interface ………. Figure 4.4: Content Outline Page ………...
Figure 4.5: Lesson Page ………..
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112 115 123 127 130 143 146 LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Letter of Permission ………... Appendix 2: Needs Survey Questionnaire ………. Appendix 3: Overview of the Designed Set of the Materials………. Appendix 4: Designed Materials Evaluation Questionnaire ……….. Appendix 5: Syllabus and Lesson Plans ……….
Appendix 6: Pictures Sources ……….
xiv ABSTRACT
Agita, Christophorus Rikko. 2009. Designing A Set of Computer -Based Reading Materials Using Task-Based Learning for The First Grade Students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Sanata Dharma University
Without ignoring other skills, reading is considered as an important skill to be taught at school since it ensures success not only in learning English, but also in learning any content class where reading in English is required. Unfortunately, the first grade students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta face several problems in learning reading. First, the texts are too long. Seco nd, students have difficulty understanding the vocabulary. Third, the exercises provided are not varied. Lastly, topics of the reading text are not varied.
This study is concerned with designing a set of computer -based reading materials using task-based learning for the first grade students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. There were two problems involved in this study. They were: (1) How is a set of computer-based reading materials using task -based learning for the first grade students of Senior High School of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta designed?, and (2) What does the set of computer -based reading materials using task -based learning for the first grade students of Senior High School of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta look like?.
In order to answer the first question in the Problem Formulation , the writer combined Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional design model. There were six steps to be carried out from the adaptation and combination of those two instructional design models. They are the following: 1) Conducting needs survey, 2) Formulating goals, topics, and general purposes, 3) Formulating general objectives, 4) Selecting teaching learning activities and materials, 5) Constructing a set of computer-based reading materials using task -based learning, 6) Evaluating the set of computer-based reading materials using task -based learning. These steps are in line with first five steps of Educational Research and Development (R&D) cycle. They were, 1) Research and information collecting, 2) Planning, 3) Develop preliminary form of product, 4) Preliminary field testing, and 5) Main product revision.
xv
Based on the results of the post design, the writer concludes that the set of designed materials are appropriate and suitable to be applied to teach reading for the first grade students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. The mean was 4.25.
xvi
ABSTRAK
Agita, Christophorus Rikko. 2009. Designing A Set of Computer -Based Reading Materials Using Task-Based Learning for The First Grade Students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris , Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Tanpa mengabaikan pentingnya skill yang lain, reading dianggap sebagai salah satu skill yang penting untuk diajarkan di sekolah karena dapat menjamin sukses bukan hanya dalam pembelajaran bahasa Inggris tetapi juga dalam bidang pembelajaran yang lain dima na bahasa Inggris dibutuhkan. Na mun demikian sangat disayangkan karena siswa-siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta mempunyai permasalahan -permasalahan dalam belajar reading. Yang pertama adalah teks yang terlalu panjang. Yang kedua, murid kesulitan untuk mem ahami kosakata. Yang ketiga, latihan -latihan soal yang diberikan kurang bervariasi. Sedangkan yang terakhir adalah topik bacaan yang diberikan kurang bervariasi.
Studi ini berkaitan mengenai penyusunan seperangkat materi pembelajaran reading berdasarkan computer-based dengan menggunakan metode pembelajaran task-based untuk siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Ada dua pertanyaan yang harus dijawab dalam studi ini. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut adalah: 1) Bagaimanakah seperangkat materi pembelajaran reading bersasarkan computer-based dengan menggunakan metode pembelajaran task-computer-based untuk siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta disusun?, dan 2) Seperti apakah seperangkat materi itu?
Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama yang tercantum dalam Rumusan Masalah, penyusun mengkombinasikan model desain pembelajaran Kemp dan Yalden. Model yang diadaptasi dari kedua model desain pembelajaran tersebut terdiri dari enam langkah, yaitu, 1) Melakukan survey kebutuhan, 2) Merumuskan tujuan khusus, topic dan tujuan umum, 3) M erumuskan tujuan pembelajaran, 4) Menyeleksi kegiatan dan materi pembelajaran, 5) Menyusun desain materi, 6) Melakukan evaluasi terhadap desain materi. Langkah-langkah tersebut sesuai dengan lima langkah pertama dari Educational Research and Development (R &D) cycle. 5 langkah tersebut yaitu: 1) Penelitian dan pengumpulan informasi, 2) Perencanaan, 3) Pengembangan bentuk awal produk, 4) Pengujian awal di lapangan, 5) Perbaikan materi/produk.
xvii
River, (5) Letter, (6) Wrapping Idea, (7) Kas, (8) First Aid Care: Wound Care Treatment.
Berdasarkan hasil dari post-design, penyusun menyimpulkan bahwa materi yang telah disusun sudah sesuai untuk digunakan untuk mengajar reading siswa kelas satu SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. Nilai rata -rata survey atas materi adalah 4,25.
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the rationale for conducting the research. It consists of Background of The Study, Problem Limitation, Problem Formulation, Research Objectives, Research Benefits, and Definition of Terms.
A. Background of The Study
Language is a means of communication since through language people gain knowledge. One of the world’s most commonly used languages is English (Randolph, 1985). English has been considered as an international language that is used in modern technolog y, political, science, trade and exchange.
Considering the importance of English, the main goal of teaching English at school is to help students to be able to communicate well both in spoken and written. It is primarily to prepare students to get into college. Since, in the university, they will always deal with English environment which demand s good English communication skill s. Most scientific articles and textbooks they will use in college are written in English. It is also relevant to present condi tion because the urgent need for students to be able to read English texts well are to pass National Final Examination or Ujian Akhir National (UAN) and to win the UMPTN (The Admission Test for State University) . Thus, mastering good communication skill will surely be a valuable asset for those who wish to be able to remain and survive in college.
Without ignoring other skills, reading is also considered as an important skill to be taught at school. Reading is an essential skill for learners of English as a second language. For most of these learners, it is the most important skill to master in order to ensure success not only in learning English, but also in learning any content class where reading in English is required (Nunan, 2003). It means that the demand of good English reading skill is not only needed in English class, but also in other subjects in which reading skil l is needed. In other words, the success in reading English can influence the success of other subjects.
People may have different purp ose of reading a written text. Sometimes they read to locate specific information, for example name, location or date. Even, commonly, they read a text to get knowledge or information, for example when they read to learn. They also read to get general comp rehension on a text, for example reading to get the main ideas. Perhaps, they also read only for pleasure. But, in an academic setting, all those purposes come into account. Thus, in relation to language teaching, an English teacher should bring those purposes into the reading classroom since th ey can help learners to succeed in the completion of tasks or even in the study.
students is necessary to help students to gain knowledge and access science. Therefore, when they are in college, they are fully ready to engage with higher written text. In short, teaching rea ding skill for senior high school students is very important to prepare them to achieve success in college (the Decree of the Minister of National Education no 22/226 concerning the Standard of Contents). In that respect, teaching reading at senior high school is crucial. It is a teacher’s duty to help learners to master a language.
According to School-Based Curriculum, every school has a right to create their own curriculum based on the school’s potential. School-Based Curriculum is used as a guideline for teachers to create teaching learning activities and materials. It means that School-Based Curriculum gives teachers more opportunity to be more creative in conducting teaching learning activities and in designing materials with best suit with their lea rners (Act no 20/2003 concerning the National Educational System) .
to take an active part in the learning process to experiment and take risks. Often, errors are inevitably in the learning p rocess. Those can reduce students’ motivation and make them feel anxious. Task-based learning value that learners need to regard their errors in a positive way (Willis, 1996, p.24).
Often, the successful learning depends much on the condition of language learning. Willis (Willis, 1996) proposed four conditions in order to get effective language learning. They are exposure, language use, motivation and instruction. Exposure, language use and motivation are essential condition for language learning, while instruction although not considerably essential is desirable. Through task-based learning, learners can interact with real world tasks. Thus, task-based learning is very valuable to improve English skills, especially reading because task-based learning provides various written text to carry out. The point is to make learners become not only more familiar with the feature of written text but also more skilful in understanding written text. TBL forces learners to involve their world knowledge and experience in comprehending written text because the success of completion of the tasks does not always rely heavily on the mastery of reading skills. Tasks are also said to improve learner motivation since students should use target language to accomplish the tasks. Hence, TBL promotes learning (Richards and Rodgers, 2001).
example scientific, technology, cultural, political, trade and exchange. Besides, media can also be used as a vehicle to transfer knowledge from teacher to students. Because of those reasons, many teachers try to take the advantages of media used in educational field.
In our educational field, a textbook is a medium which is considered as an important part in teaching and learning process. For years teachers have used a textbook to facilitate the teaching learning process. It is primarily because a textbook is very practical and easy to use. In SMA N 9 Yogyakarta, a textbook is used as the main source of teaching and learning process. Students use the textbook in order to learn and practice their communication in English. But, students feel that they are ov erwhelmed with the texts given because they do not fit with the students’ proficiency level. The texts are too long for them. Students have difficulty understanding the vocabulary. Students, as the language learners, need a lot of exposure of English to br oaden their knowledge of English. The textbook they use does not give them various topics and exercises to choose from . If students are not interested in the materials given, they will not do their best in learning. In order to solve the problem, sometimes teachers need to create reading materials. They make those to supplement reading materials provided in the textbook. But, since there are some problems which arise in using a textbook, teachers need to find another medium to teach students.
medium to learn English, especially reading. It implies that learning does not always use a textbook. A computer in fact, has a lot of advantages for educational field. It can aid students’ learning and help teachers to deliver materials. The
implementation of computer in language teaching and learning has begun for decades ago. A Lou Harris poll conducted at the end of 1983 found that children in 40 percents of the households with school -aged children used a computer at school (Report on educational Research, 1983 as cited in Rude, 1986).
The following are the suggestions why the computer is used in the design: a. its ability to interact with students (Kenning, 1983) , b. its important role and function in helping students become better readers (Cushenbery, 1985 ), c. the improvement of academic motivation due to children’s high enthusiasm about using the computer (Rude, 1986,; Spencer and Baskin, 1983; Merton, 1983; Fisher, 1983).
A computer accompanied by software can perform well as a textbook, even more than a textbook. To perform as a t extbook, a computer provides various materials and exercises. Students therefore have many topics to choose from. As second language learners, students need a lot of English exposure to broaden their knowledge. Some exercises are also available in the comp uter for students to practice. Unlike a textbook, exercises available in the computer never fade although they are used many times. The computer also has potential ability to reduce students’ anxiety and increase students’ motivation.
evaluated or changed if it is unclear. Often, students have difficulty in doing the exercises. They feel stressed or unenthusiastic in learning when they cannot give the answers. A computer has the ability to help students do the exercises. A Help button is available in some exercises. They just need to click on it when they need help or have difficulties in doing the exercises. In su pporting students to accomplish the tasks, a Vocabulary List is available. It can be accessed by clicking on the button. In traditional method, sometimes when teachers feel fatigued, they tend to neglect their students and do not give appropriate feedback to the students. As a result, the teaching learning activities do not run well. A computer in delivering materials never feels fatigued. Based on those reasons the designer attempts to design a set of computer-based reading materials for the First Grade Students of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta.
The designer uses HotPotatoes 6™ to design the learning exercises. Hot Potatoes 6™ is software to create reading exercises. It offers some types of reading exercises, such as multiple choice, matching, gap filling, crossword and arranging words. HotPotatoes 6™ also makes the learning become effective and efficient by providing immediate feedback in form of scor e. In other words, HotPotatoes 6™ allows paper exercises to be written in the computer.
HotPotatoes 6™ and Macromedia Dreamweaver 8™ is able to present the materials to be taught based on the objectives. However, it should be designed in such a way so that it is able to be used by students and teachers . The following is the illustration of the software application created using Macromedia Dreamweaver 8™. When students come to the front page of the application, they are offered four links to choose from namely Home, Content Outline, Help and Author. Each link brings them to different place s. To choose one of the links, they just need to click on the button they desired. For example, to go to the reading exercises, they should click on the Content Outline button. There are 8 lessons provided in it. In each lesson, students get some reading exer cises. Some exercises contain a reading text. An interesting thing of computer -based reading materials is that as soon as the students finish one exercise, they can get the result of their practice immediately by clicking on the Check button. The designed set of computer-based reading materials is applied in the computer laboratory of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta.
Based on the explanation above, the writer attempts to design a set of computer-based reading materials using task -based learning for the first grade students of senior high school of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta to help students solve their problems.
B. Problem Limitation
The designed set of computer-based reading materials using task-based learning in this study is used for teaching English, especially reading for the first grade students in SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. The writer chose SMA N 9 Yogyakarta because the writer only focuses on one school. Besides, the facility available there makes it possible to use the media and implement the designed set of materials. The writer focuses on designing a set of reading materials for one semester. It is used in the first semester. The materials are narratives, recounts and procedures. The writer focuses on developing pre-reading and while-reading materials which are used in the computer laboratory. However, the wrier also proposes several activities for post-reading.
C. Problem Formulation
In this study, there are two problems to be discussed. The problem can be formulated as follows:
1. How is a set of computer-based reading materials using task-based learning for the first grade students of Senior High School of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta designed?
D. Research Objectives
In this study, there are two objectives to elaborate. The two objectiv es can be specified as follows:
1. to find out how a set of computer-based reading materials using task-based learning for the first grade Students of Senior High School of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta is designed,
2. to present the set of computer-based reading materials using task-based learning for the first grade students of Senior High School of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta.
E. Research Benefits
There are some benefits, which can be obtained from this study. They are described as follows:
1. For the English teachers of senior high school, this study will help them to provide a set of alternative reading materials.
2. For the students, hopefully this study will help them to learn English effectively especially in learning reading.
3. For further researchers, this study hopefully encourages them to make an evaluation and revision so that they can produce a better design in the future.
F. Definition of Terms 1. Design
the learning objectives and specifying subject areas of particular learner (Hutchinson and Waters, 1994, p.106).
The term design in this study refers to the creating a set of reading materials using Macromedia Dreamweaver for the First Grade Students of Senior High School.
2. Reading
According to Anderson ( Anderson, 1999) reading means a fluent process of readers combining information from a text and their own background knowledge to build meaning.
Wallace (Wallace, 2003) stated that reading as interpreting means reacting to a written text as a piece of communication .
In this design, reading means understanding a written text . It includes skimming, scanning, comprehension, reading between the lines, getting the supporting details and main ideas.
3. Computer-Based Reading Materials
Levy (Levy, 1997) stated that when the word ‘based’ is part of the
acronym we are looking at the very central, all -encompassing role for the computer. He also added that to function as a tutor, a computer presents some subject material, the student responds, the computer evaluates the response, and from the results of the evaluation, determines what to present next.
based on the students’ need and interest. Students read the reading text and do exercises via a computer.
4. Task-Based Learning
Nunan as cited by Richards an d Rodgers (Richards and Rodgers, 2001, 224 cited Nunan, 1989) stated that task-based learning is one kind of learning in which the learners are given a lot of tasks in the target language so that they can comprehend, manipulate, produce and interact using that language while their attention is principally focus on meaning rather than form.
Willis (Willis, 1996) stated that task-based learning is activities where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome.
In this design, task-based learning is learning which uses a lot of tasks. The word ‘outcome’ in this study means the objectives of the learning. Thus, t he tasks here mean learners’ activities, especially reading activities that they get as learning experiences that help them to achieve the objectives of the learning. 5. First Grade Students of Senior High School
CHAPTER II
THEORETICAL REVIEW
This chapter presents detailed discussion about some theories underlying the study. This chapter is divided into two sections, namely: Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework. The first section elaborates some theories which serve as a fou ndation for this study. The second section summarizes the writer’s framework and the steps in designing a set of computer -based reading materials using task -based learning.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the writer discusses some theories related to this study. There are six theories that are going to be discuss ed. The first is instructional design models. The second is the reading skill. The third is school based curriculum. The fourth is syllabus. The fifth is task -based learning. The sixth is co mputer assisted language learning.
1. Instructional Design Models
Since the objective of this study is designing materials to develop reading skills, the writer employed Kemp’s and Yalden’s instructional material design.
Those two models will be comb ined and used as the basis in developing the instructional materials.
a. Kemp’s model
Kemp’s instructional material design model consists of eight steps. Each
step is presented as follows:
1) Considering goals and list topics stating the general purposes fo r teaching each topic.
The first step starts with“therecognition of the broad goals of the school system or institution” (Kemp, 1977, p.13). After choosing the goals, the designer chose the topics.
2) Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed.
Kemp suggests that knowing students’ characteristic is important in
designing instructional material because it influences the designed material. The information of students’ characteristic was used to design appropriate materials. 3) Specify the learner objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student
behavioral outcomes.
Since the learning objectives concern with learning as the outcome of the instruction, learners need to have active effort. Thus, all objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning (Kemp, 1977).
4) List the subject content to support each objective.
Kemp argues that the subject content must be related with student’s need
and interest. Kemp also offers four q uestions that can be used to select subject content. They are:
b) What facts, concepts, principles relate to this topic.
c) What steps are involved in necessary procedures relating to this topic. d) What techniques are required in performing essential skills.
5) Developing pre-assessment to determine the students’ background and present level of knowledge about the topic.
Pre-assessment is needed to examine students’ preparation to study the topic and competent in some of the stated objectives (Kemp, 1977). From the statement we know that giving students enough preparation is important. It enables students to acquire the objectives and master the topic.
6) Select teaching/learning activities and instructional resou rces that will treat the subject content, so the students will accomplish the objectives.
Kemp states that appropriate methods and instructional activities will help learners to achieve the learning objectives. So, the teacher has to know the strengths and weaknesses of the methods used in the study and the materials.
7) Coordinate such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment and schedules to carry out instructional plan.
There are many factors needed in designing instructional materials suggested by Kemp. The support services are budget, facilities, equipment, time and schedule. Kemp also suggests that coordination of each support service must be considered at the same time with making instructional plans and selecting the materials.
Kemp says that evaluating students’ learning is necessary in order to know how far the learners have achieved the objectives (Kemp, 1977, p.86). At the end of the teaching-learning activities, the teacher usually conducts a test to measure the learning outcomes.
Figure 2. 1: Kemp’s Model (Kemp, 1997, p. 9)
The circular shape of the model gives a sense that the design and the development process is a continuous cycle that requires constant planning, design, evaluation and assessment, to insure effective instruction. Revision line encircles all elements of the models shows t hat changes in the content or treatment are allowed at any time. This idea is to improve any weakness part of the program to better insure learners to accomplish the instructional objectives at a satisfactory level.
Goals, Topics and
General Purposes
Revise
Pre-assessment
Subject Content
Learning Objectives Learner
Characteri stics Evaluation
Support Services
b. Yalden’s model
The second instructional design model is adapted from Janice Yalden. He states 7 stages in planning a syllabus. They are described as follows:
1) Needs survey
Needs survey is conducted in order to find the needs and states objectives that are suitable for the learners. By understand ing as much information as possible, the objectives being stated are realistic.
2) Description of purpose
In this stage, the description of purpose is prepared in terms of the students’ characteristics and the students’ skill on entry and on exit from the
program.
3) Selection and development of syllabus type
The choice of a syllabus type is done when general category of a language program has been decided.
4) Production of a proto syllabus
This stage gives description of the content that the syllabus will have, that is, the preparation of syllabus specification. It includes description of language and language use to be covered in the program.
5) Production of a pedagogical syllabus
Yalden states that production of pedagogical syllabus develops the teaching materials, the learning and testing approaches, testing sequence and decisions on testing instruments.
a) Development of classroom procedures
1. Selection of exercises types and teaching techniques 2. Preparation of lesson plans
3. Preparation of weekly schedules. b) Implementation of classroom procedures
1. Principles
2. Desired outcomes
3. Exploitation or creation of teaching material. 7) Evaluation and stage recycling
According to Yalden, evaluation describes 3 parts; the ev aluation of the students, the evaluation of the program, and the evaluation of the teaching. The next stage is recycling which is the last step in the process of syllabus design. Based on this stage, the fit between goals set and the final performance of t he learners is determined then materials and teaching approaches are revised.
Below is the figure of the language development suggested by Yalden:
Figure 2.2: Yalden’s Model (Yalden, 1987, p.88)
were chosen to fulfil three essential points in developing learning materials. They are purpose, process and evaluation.
The writer applied 3 steps of Kemp’s instructional design model. They are:
a. Considering goals and list topic s stating the general purposes for teaching each topic.
b. Specify the learner objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes.
c. Select teaching/learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content, so the students will accomplish the objectives.
The writer applied 2 steps of Yalden’s instructional design model. They are:
a. Needs survey.
b. Evaluation and stage recycling.
2. Curriculum
This section deals with discussion about School -Based Curriculum and Curriculum of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta. They are discussed because the designed set of materials is used as compu lsory subject in teaching reading at SMA N 9 Yogyakarta.
a. School-Based Curriculum
Based on the Decree of the Minister of National E ducation No 24/2006, Indonesia implements School -Based Curriculum or Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP). School-Based Curriculum is developed because of diversity
of school’s potential in Indonesia.
School-Based Curriculum gives a great authority to all schools in Indonesia to develop and construct their own curriculum based on their school’s
potential, students’ character and socio-cultural background. The process of developing and constructing curriculum involves headmasters, teachers and school committee. While the role of government is only as guidance.
School-Based Curriculum states the goal, competence standard and basic competence of all subjects. The competence standard of reading for the first grade students of senior high school at the first semester is that students are able to understand the meanings in short functional texts and simple essays of narratives, recounts and procedures in daily life context to access scienc e (based on the Decree of the Minister of National Education no22 Year 2006).
There are two basic competences to be achieved by the first grade students of senior high. The first is s tudents are able to comprehend the functional short text meaning both in formal and informal setting accurately and fluently and acceptably. The second is s tudents are able to respond to the meaning and rhetorical steps of narratives, recounts and procedures in daily life context accurately, fluently and acceptably to access science.
b. Curriculum of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta
2006 concerning the implementation of KTSP, SMA N 9 Yogyakarta has designed and developed Curriculum of SMA N 9 Yogyakarta but it has not been approved and legalized by the Ministry of National Education. Hence, teachers are given great authority to develop and create their teaching -learning materials and activities based on School -Based Curriculum.
In conclusion, the English curriculu m used in SMA N 9 Yogyakarta is School-Based Curriculum. Competence standard and basic competence of reading English for first grade students of senior high school as stated in School -Based Curriculum are used as the basis in deciding the topic, goal and t he objectives of the study.
3. Syllabus
According to Robinson (Robinson, 1991, 34), a syllabus is a plan of work in a language program, which is used by teachers as a guideline in selecting and organizing the instructional content. A syllabus is importan t in language teaching because it gives description of what has to be done by teachers and how the teaching learning process will be.
Krahnke (Krahnke, 1987, 9 -12) stated six types of syllabus. They are structural syllabus, notional/functional syllabus, s ituational syllabus, skill -based syllabus, task-based syllabus, and content -based syllabus. They are explained below.
a. Structural Syllabus
structures (grammar).
b. Notional/Functional Syllabus
A notional/functional syllabus is the syllabus which focuses on the content of the language teaching on the language functions, example agreeing, complaining and so on.
c. Situational Syllabus
A situational syllabus is the syllabus in which the content of the language teaching is organized around the real imaginary situations in which the language is used.
d. Skill-based Syllabus
A skill-based syllabus is the syllabus in which the content of the language teaching is focused on the specific abilitie s that play roles in using the language. e. Task-based Syllabus
A task-based syllabus is the syllabus in which the content of the language teaching is organized around the tasks that the students need to perform with the language they are learning.
f. Content-based Syllabus
A content-based syllabus is the syllabus in which the content of the language teaching is organized around the content information the students need to acquire using the language they learn.
sharing personal experiences. A task -based syllabus is structured around a seri es of tasks that the students need to perform with the language they are learning.
4. Task-based Learning
The explanation of task -based learning is presented in this section. This section gives deeper understanding about task -based learning that is used in this study. It consists of three major parts. They are nature of task -based learning, types of task and framework of task -based learning.
a. Nature of Task-based Learning
In order to understand task -based learning, we have to first look forward on the meaning of task in which it will be used. Nunan (Nunan, 2004, p.1) draw basic distinction between real -world or target tasks, and pedagogical tasks. Target tasks refer to uses of language in the world beyond the classroom while pedagogical tasks are those that occur in the classroom.
Long (Long, 1985, p.89) as cited in Nunan (Nunan, 2004, p.2) argued that target task is:
a piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward. Those example of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out of form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation…In other words, by ‘task’ is meant the hundred and one things
people do in everyday life, at work, at play and in between.
outcomes. Another thing to notice is that some of examples provided may not involve language use at all.
Nunan (Nunan, 2004, p.2) stated that when they are transformed from the real world to the classroom, tasks become pedagogical in nature. Here is a definition of a pedagogical task:
…an activity or action which is carried out as the result of processing or
understanding language (i.e. as a response). Fo r example, drawing a map while listening to an instruction and performing a command…A task
usually requires the teacher to specify what will be regarded as successful completion of the task. The use of a variety of different kinds of tasks in language teaching is said to make language teaching more communicative…since it provides a purpose for a classroom activity
which goes beyond the practice of language for its own sake. (Richards, et al. 1985, p.289)
This definition explains tasks in terms of what the learners will do in the classroom rather than in the world outside the classroom. We can also clearly see that it emphasizes the importance of having a non -linguistic outcome.
b. Types of Task
Wilis (Willis, 1996, p.26) proposed six types of tasks. They are p resented below:
1) Listing
a) Brainstorming, in which learners draw on their knowledge and experience either as a class or in pairs/groups.
b) Fact finding, in which learners find things out by asking each other or other people and referring to book, etc.
2) Ordering and sorting
These tasks involve four main processes. They are as follows: a) Sequencing items, actions or events in a logical or chronological order. b) Ranking items according to personal values or specified criteria.
c) Categorizing items in given groups or grouping them under given headings. d) Classifying items in different ways, where the categories themselv es are not
given. 3) Comparing
Broadly, this task involves comparing information of a similar nature but from different sources or versions in order to identify common points and/or differences. The processes involved are:
a) Matching to identify specific points and relate them to each other. b) Finding similarities and things in common.
c) Finding differences. 4) Problem solving
agreeing a solution.
5) Sharing personal experiences
This task encourages learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others. But it should be noted that the result of this task is closer to casual social conversation in that it is not goal -oriented as in other tasks.
6) Creative tasks
These tasks are often called projects and involve pairs or groups of learners in some kinds of freer creative work. Organizational skills and team -work are important in getting the task done.
c. The Framework of Task-based Learning
Willis (Willis, 1996) in his book entitled A Framework for Task -Based Learning stated three phases of task -based framework. They are pre -task, task cycle, and language focus.
1) Pre-task Phase
This phase introduces the class to the topic and the task, activating topic -related words and phrase. This usually becomes the sho rtest stage in the framework. However, it depends much on the learners’ degree of familiarity with
the topic and type of task.
during the task and outside the classroom. The point of the introd uctory focus on topic and language is not to teach large amounts of new language, and certainly not to teach one practical grammar structure, but to boost students’ confidence in
handling the task, and give them something to fall back on if necessary. The last step is to ensure that all learners understand what the task involves, what its goals are and what outcomes are required.
2) Task Cycle
Task cycle consist of three main stages. They are task, planning and report. They are described below.
Task stage offers learners the chances to use whatever language they already know in order to carry out the task, and then to improve that language, under teacher guidance, while planning their reports of the task (Nunan,1996). At this part, the role of the teacher is as monitor. Teacher let the learners to accomplish the tasks individually or in groups.
To function as a monitor, teacher’s role is less active. Willis explains the
role of teacher briefly as follows:
a) Teacher should make sure that all pairs or grou ps are doing the right task and are clear about the objectives.
b) Teacher should encourage all students to take part, no matter how weak their language is.
c) Teacher should be forgiving about errors of form.
e) Teacher should notice which students seem to do more talking and controlling, and if anyone seems to be left out.
f) Teacher should notice if and when any pairs or groups switch to mother tongue, and, later perhaps, to fi nd out why.
g) Teacher should act as time keeper.
The next stage is planning stage. This stage forms the central part of the task cycle. It gives description about how to help learners plan their report effectively and maximize their learning opportunities. T he main role of teacher in this stage is as language adviser who helps students shape their meanings and express more exactly what they want to say.
The last stage is report stage. This section deals with the natural conclusion of the task cycle. The impo rtant part in this stage is to acknowledge that students are offering them as the best they can achieve at that moment, given the linguistic resources and time available. In the report stage, the role of teacher is as a chairperson. A teacher should introd uce the presentation, set a purpose for listening, nominate who speaks next and sum up at the end.
3) Language focus
The last stage of Task-Based learning framework is language focus. This stage allows learners to study some of the specific features of the language form and language use occurring during the task cycle. Hence, the learners will have already worked with the language and processed it for meaning. So, they are ready to focus and improve language forms.
Figure 2.3: The Components of The Task Cycle (Willis, 1996, p.52)
This section gives overview about task -based learning. It provides types of tasks that are used in this study as learning activities. The types of tasks that are used in this study as the reading exercises are listing, comparing, and sharing
Language focus Pre-task
Task cycle
Introduction to the topic and task The teacher explores the topic with the class, highlights useful words and phrases, helps students
understand task instructions and prepare. Students may hear a recording of others doing a similar task.
Task of new words, phrases and patterns occurring in the data, either during or after
experiences. Knowing and understanding the framework of task -based learning, the writer decides the sequence order of the learning activity. Therefore, pre -task, task cycle and language focus will be in cluded in the designed materials.
5. The Reading Skill
This section provides explanation about reading. It consist s of five parts namely nature of reading, reading process, teaching reading, three phases in teaching reading and reading tasks.
a. Nature of Reading
Speaking and writing are said to be active or productive skills, whereas listening and reading are said to be passive skills (Widdowson, 1979). Wallace (Wallace, 2003) in his book entitled ‘Reading’ stated that Reading as interpreting means reacting to a written text as a piece of communication. It means that reading allows us to understand and comprehend written form of language. It should be noted that although reading is regarded as a receptive skill but reading requires an active process inside t he brain. Since reading makes learners actively engaged in making sense of what they are reading.
to increase general knowledge of words. It necessary helps learners to guess the words when they listen to the recording. By giving a lot of exposure of reading, students’ vocabulary will increase. This of course influences their speaking vocabulary. When students read a text, they transfer knowledge into their brain. To produce a writing, they use their information and knowledge they had.
b. Reading Process
Anderson (Anderson, 1999) proposed three reading models. They are bottomup, topdown and interactive model as reading models in reading. Bottom -up model begins with letter, combining letters to create words, then phrases, clauses and sentences of text. Bottom -up is necessary in reading bec ause bottom-up helps the readers to catch and understand the meaning of the information of a text.
Comprehension
Figure 2.4: Bottom-up Approach to Reading
While top-down consists of life experience and knowledge of situational routines. Top-down is also important in reading because it can help readers to make predictions and create the meaning of the text. Reading begins with reader background knowledge.
second language readers are those who can “efficiently integrate” both bottom-up and top-down process.
Figure 2.5: Top-down Approach to Reading
Reader background knowledge
Figure 2.6: Interactive Approach to Reading
So, we can conclude that successful bottom -up, and successful top-down also interactive are needed to comprehend the meaning of the message.
c. Teaching Reading
In teaching reading, there are some principles to be considered. Anderson (Anderson, 1999) formulated the principle in teaching reading into the word ACTIVE.
A: Activate prior knowledge C: Cultivate vocabulary T: Teach for comprehension I: Increase reading rate V: Verify reading strategy
E: Evaluate progress
Activating prior knowledge is very beneficial to engage students in an activity that gets them thinking about what they already know about the topic of reading. Besides, this part sometimes, influence students’ achievement in reading
activity since this is the leap for students in understanding a written text. In order to activate prior knowledge, we can ask some questions to the students.
Cultivate vocabulary. Word webs are a very good activity for building students’ vocabulary skills. Begin by writing a key concept in the middle of the whiteboard.
Teach for comprehension. The main purpose of teaching reading is comprehension. In this part, we discuss students’ understanding on a certain topic.
Increase reading rate. This is an activity in order to make students read better. That is repeated reading. Students have to read a short passage over and over again until they achieve criterion levels of reading rate and comprehension.
Verify reading strategies. Think aloud protocols in a guided format get learners to identify the strategies that they use while reading.
Evaluate progress. After learning reading, students’ progress is evaluated
in order to know their achievement. d. Three Stages in Teaching Reading
In order to help the learners in understanding a written lang uage, there are 3 reading stages to be carried out. They are explained as follows:
1) Pre-reading activities
read the text. It is also important to help teacher determine students’
understanding of the text given. a) Teaching vocabulary
Teaching vocabulary can help learners to guess the topic of the text. But, teacher should not explain all new vocabulary since students also need to actively take part in acquiring vocabulary independen tly.
b) Providing essential background information
Adequate preparation for reading a text includes helping students either recall or acquire information necessary for comprehending it. Background knowledge includes life experience, knowledge on particular f ield, cultural background and so on. It can be exploited by asking question, making prediction, etc.
c) Establishing purposes for reading
Setting purpose for reading helps students to connect their background knowledge with what they have already read. As a r esult, they will focus more in reading the text. With a teacher’s help, students can often decide what they want
to get from their reading.
d) Motivating students to be able to read.
Sometimes, students are not ready to deal with a text. It is a teacher’s duty to encourage them to get into reading activity and to develop interest in the reading text.
These four activities will help to facilitate the students’ reading
students should be able to read the reading text independently and without interruption. (Durkin, 1987)
2) While-reading activities
This activity facilitates students to comprehend a written text. Giving appropriate questions can enhance their comprehension. The activitie s are as follows:
a) Skimming
Skimming is a very fast reading which is usually done to get an overall picture of a text.
b) Scanning
Scanning refers to a high speed reading in order to find specific information.
c) Reading for explicitly stated main ideas.
The activities help students to find main ideas explicitly. d) Reading for implicitly stated main ideas
The activities facilitate students to understand main ideas implicitly. e) Reading for details
The students are asked to read the text to find the detailed informa tion. f) Reading between the lines
g) Deducing meaning from context
This activity requires students to discover the meaning of a great number of unfamiliar words from the text.
3) Post-reading activities
Post-reading activity aims to review or reflect what they have got from the text and to relate the text with the learners’ background knowledge, interests and opinion.
a) Problem solving discussion toward the problem of the text.
These activities encourage students to talk together to find a solution to problem or task.
b) Doing a word puzzle dealing with the term of the text
These require students to use personal experiences, use their imagination and test their powers of logical reasoning.
c) Telling summary of the text
After reading a text, students retell an entire reading text with their own words.
d) Holding a small role play
Learners are given some chances to what to say and may participate more willingly
e. Reading Task
exercises are potential to be test items and vice versa. However, there is no one best method for testing reading because no single test method can fulfil the varied purposes for which we might test.
1) Discrete-point versus integrative techniques
Discrete-point approaches are usually intended to test one thing at a time. They are constructed on the assumption that language can be broken down into its component parts and that thos e parts can be tested successfully. The word components refers to the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Integrative approaches aimed to gain a much more general idea of how well students read.
2) The cloze test and gap-filling tests
Cloze tests are constructed by deleting from selected texts every n -th word and simply requiring the test taker to restore the word that has been deleted. But in this case, the test constructor has no control over the words which are deleted since the test constructor only decides the starting point.
In gap-filling tests, the test constructor decides which words to delete. But the test constructor should try no fewer than five or six words between gaps. This makes the test constructor have control over the test, h ence she knows what is being tested.
3) Multiple choice techniques
answer to questions and to some extent to control the students’ thought processes
when responding by providing distractors. A better format can be adjusted to fit the objectives being assessed.
4) Alternative objectives techniques a) Matching techniques
In matching techniques, two sets of stimuli have to be matched against each other. In constructing the test, we need to ensure that no choice is possible unintentionally. It is also important to give more alternative to avoid danger that once all but one choice has been made, there is only one possible final choice. b) Ordering tasks
A scrambled set of words, sentences, paragraphs or texts is given in this type of task. This task gives the possibility of testing the ability to detect cohesion, overall text organization or complex grammar, such tasks are remarkably difficult to construct satisfactorily.
c) Dichotomous items
Dichotomous items are presented with a statement which is related to a target text and have to in dicate whether this is True or False, or whether the text agrees or disagrees with the statement. Some tests reduce the possibility of guessing by including a third category such as ‘not given’, or ‘the text does not
say’, but especially with items intending to test the ability to infer meaning, this can lead to considerable confusion.
d) Editing tests
which the candidate has to identify. The errors can be in multiple -choice format, or can be more open. The errors can determine the aim of the test, whether the item is testing the ability to read or linguistic ability.
5) Alternative integrated approaches a) The C-test
In C-test, the second half of every second word is deleted and has to be restored by the reader. This technique is a more reliable and comprehensive measure of understanding than cloze test.
b) The cloze elide test
The cloze elide test offer opportunity for the writer to insert words into text. The task of the test taker is to delete each word that does not belong. Thus, the inserted words make the test taker to interpret the text with the added words. This technique is used not as a measure comprehension but as a measure of the degree with which reader can process text.
6) Short answer tests
Test-takers are simply asked a question which requires a brief response in this short answer tests. This technique offers possibility to interpret students’
7) The free-recall test
In free-recall tests, students are asked to read a text, to put it to one side, and then to write down everything they can remember from the text. Test questions do not intervene between the reader and the text therefore this technique is often held to provide a purer measure of comprehension.
8) The summary test
Based on summary test, students should read a text and then ar e required to summarise the main ideas, either the whole text or of a part, those ideas in the text that deal with a given topic. In order to do the task satisfactorily, students should understand the main ideas of the text, to separate the relevant from irrelevant ideas, to organise thoughts about the text and so on. This test involves a main problem, that is students may not understand the text therefore they have difficulty in summarizing the text. A good solution is to provide multiple choice summaries. The task of the students is to select the best summary out of the answers on offer.
9) The gapped summary
The idea of this task is to restore the missing words. Students are given a text and the summary of the text to be read. Some key words from the summar y are removed. Then their task is to restore those missing words. This can only be done if students have read and understood the main ideas of the original text. 10) Information-transfer techniques
transfer it. The answers might be in forms of names, numbers, phrases or short sentences. A possible problem in these tasks is that such tasks can be very complicated. The test takers sometimes need much time understanding the table or graphic. Therefore, the test constructor needs to add information to ensure that they can complete the tasks.
Latulippe (Latulippe, 1987) stated two groups of words that giv e problems to students: references and connectives.
1) References
References are words or phrases that are used as substitutes for words or phrases used either before or after the references in the reading material.
They are typically used to avoid repetiti on of words or phrases. 2) Connectives
Connectives are words that are used to link ideas together in some kind of relationship. They are commonly used to signal cause -effect relationship in which the result follows logically from the cause.
Actually they are important for in-depth reading. Therefore to better understand a text students need to practice those words.
