CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1. Related Studies
1. “Code Switching and Code Mixing in KH Zainuddin MZ’s Sermons” by
Muhammad Husni Mubarok (2007)
The study of code switching in KH Zainuddin MZ’s sermons is the study
which tries to reveal the types of code switching and the factors that may underlie the code switching occurrences. He analyzes the data by using the theory of code switching and mixing by Hudson (1980) and Soewito (1985).
He finds that in the three of KH Zainuddin MZ’s sermons there are main code
2. “Code Mixing and Code Switching in “Smart Bussiness Talk” of Smart Radio 101,8fm in the Theme “ How to Become a Superstar Sales Person” by Emmy K.
Sinulingga (2007)
In her paper, she analyzed about the using of code switching and code mixing used by the presenter of the radio to broadcast directly. Bilingualism and multilingulism used by them.
She used qualitative method to analyze the data that she found. She found that code switching is dominantly used by the speaker with 59% and 41% of code mixing happened. She also analyze the reasons about the speakers who oftenly change her code.
3. “Code switching and code mixing found in the novel “Kamar Cewek” by Dian Marisha Putri (2010)”
In her thesis, she finds that code mixing (74,76%) is the most dominant used in the novel. And for the code switching, there are two types: situational code switching (23,64%) and methaporical code switching (1,60%). And it is the result of the presentation find by the writer of the thesis.
2.2 Review of Underlying Theory 2.2.1 Sociolinguistics
Language is one of the most powerful emblems of social behavior. In the normal transfer of information through language, we use language to send vital social messages about who we are, where we come from, and who we associate with. It is often shocking to realize how extensively we may judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon the person's language, dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a single word.
Given the social role of language, it stands to reason that one strand of language study should concentrate on the role of language in society.
Sociolinguistics has become an increasingly important and popular field of study, as certain cultures around the world expand their communication base and intergroup and interpersonal relations take on escalating significance.
The basic notion underlying sociolinguistics is quite simple: Language u se symbolically represents fundamental dimensions of social behavior and human interaction. The notion is simple, but the ways in which language reflects behavior can often be complex and subtle. Furthermore, the relationship between language and society affects a wide range of encounters--from broadly based international relations to narrowly defined interpersonal relationships.
It is also possible to examine how people manage their language in relation to their cultural backgrounds and their goals of interaction. Sociolinguists might investigate questions such as how mixed-gender conversations differ from single-gender conversations, how differential power relations manifest themselves in language forms, how caregivers let children know the ways in which language should be used, or how language change occurs and spreads to communities. To answer these questions related to language as social activity, sociolinguists often use ethnographic methods. That is, they attempt to gain an understanding of the values and viewpoints of a community in order to explain the behaviors and attitudes of its members.
Two trends have characterized the development of sociolinguistics over the past several decades. First, the rise of particular specializations within this field has coincided with the emergence of more broadly based social and political issues. Thus, the focus on themes such as language and nationalism, language and ethnicity, and language and gender has corresponded with the rise of related issues in society at large. Second, specialists who examine the role of language and society have become more and more interested in applying the results of their studies to the broadly based social, educational, and political problems that probably gave rise to their emergence as sociolinguistic themes to begin with. Sociolinguistics thus offers a unique opportunity to bring together theory, description, and application in the study of language. In the early definition the study, some linguists used the term sociology of language, while other named it sociolinguistics.
language and how language functions in communications. (Ronald Wardhaugh, 1986)
Sociolinguistics is that part of linguistics which is concerned with language as a social and cultural phenomenon (Peter Trudgill, 1983).
Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, between the users of language and the social structures in which the users of language live. (Bernard Spolsky, 1998)
From some quotations above, we can conclude that sociolinguistics is the interdisciplinary study which studies about the relationship between language and social factors in a speech community.
2.2.2 Speech Communities
Language is both an individual possession and a social possession. We would expect, therefore, that certain individuals would behave linguistically like other individuals: the might be said to speak the same language or the same dialect or the same variety, i.e., to employ the same code, and in that respect to be members of the same speech community, a term probably derived from the Indonesian Komuniti Bahasa. Indeed, much work in sociolinguistics is based on the assumption that it is possible use the concept of “speech community” without much difficulty. Hudson (1996:29) rejects that view: “our sociolinguistic world is not organized in terms of objective “speech communities” even though we like to think subjectively in terms
around some speech community, is just a wild goose chase. We will indeed discover just as it is difficult to define such term as language, dialect, and variety, it is also difficult to define speech community, and for many of the same reasons. That difficulty , however, will not prevent from using the term: the concept has proved to be invaluable in sociolinguistic work in spite of a certain “fuzziness” as to its precise characteristics. It remains so even if we decide that a speech community is no more than some kind of social group whose speech characteristics are of interest and can be described in a coherent manner (Wardhaugh, 1998: 119).
According to Labov (in Wardhaugh 1986 : 115) define speech community as follows:
The speech community is not defined by any marked agreement in the use of language elements, so much as by participating in a set of shared norms; these norms may be observed in over types of variations which are invariant in respect o particular levels of usage.
2.2.3 Bilingualism
The concept of bilingualism seems at first sight to be non-problematical. According to Webster’s dictionary (1961) bilingual is defined as ‘having or using
two languages especially as spoken with fluency characteristic of a native-speaker; a person using two languages especially habitually and with control like that of a native-speaker and bilingualism as ‘the constant oral use of two languages’. In the
popular view, being bilingual equals being able to speak two languages perfectly; this is also the approach of Bloomfield (1935:56), who defines bilingualism as ‘the
native-like control of two languages’. In contradiction to this definition which includes only ‘perfect bilinguals’ Macnamara (1967) proposes that a bilingual is
anyone who possesses a minimal competence in only one of the four language skills, listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing, in a language other than his mother tongue. Between these two extremes one encounters a whole array of definition as, for example, the one proposed by Titone (1972), for whom bilingualism is the individual’s capacity to speak a second language while following
the concept and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing his or her mother tongue.
Islam and Latin in Christian.it makes us have to understand about the language if we want to understand about it. (Umar and Napitupulu 1994: 9-10)
2.2.4 Code
In bilingual or multilingual society it is normal for the people to be in a situation where a choice between twoor more code has to be made. In the situation the bilinguals may want to consider. For example, who speaks to them, in which language or variety, and when or where the conversation takes place. To a bilingual or multilingual, although choosing a code is one of the routines, the skill in deciding which code should be chosen still needs developing.
In 1964, Dell Hathaway Hymes, one of the most noted world sociolinguistists, suggested eight factors that bilingual, multilingual, or monolingual people may consider when is the right time to chose a code. The factors were formulated into an acronym, namely S-P-E-A-K-I-N-G, which stands for Setting and Scene, Participants, Ends, Act Sequence, Key, Instrumentalities, Norms, and Genre.
S (Setting and Scene) are the places, occasions or natural situations that can influent the people in choosing the code, in general, it includes the situation of speech act.
E (Ends) are the goals, purposes and outcomes that a speaker wishes to reach of speech act.
A (Act sequence) refers to form and order of the event or to the type and the content of speech act , a narrative, or a conversation.
K (Key) is referred to the tone and manner, spirit and feeling of the message wished to be captured within the conversation. It is also referred to the spirit captured in the voice or manner of speaker. The spirit of the feeling may be sincere, modest or low.
I (Instrumentalities) are referred to register, the channels and forms of he speech. Channels can be written or oral language or even symbols. Form of speech can be kind of language such as the language varieties. And the forms that might be under consideration are whether it will be delivered in a more formal way or a csual friendly one.
N (Norms) are divided into two; interaction norms and interpretations norms. Those are refer to the norms and rules of interacting and interpreting in a speech act. Social rules governing the event and the participant’s actions and reactions. It is contextual custom in using the codes, including for example allowance for an interruption, using gesture freely, addressing an audience, eye contacts, distance, and asking questions about belief.
foundations in the general study of code choices. They are popularly known as the components of the ethnography of speaking. In a conversation we might not find the factors to be activated all together. To certain degree this factors in choosing a code might be also helpful to describe factors that influence other forms of language-contact-phenomenon, namely code switching and code mixing.
2.2.5 Code Switching and Code Mixing
Several scholars have attempted to define code-switching and code-mixing. Among them are Amuda (1989), Atoye (1994) and Belly (1976). For instance, Hymes defines only code-switching as “a common term for alternative use of two or
more language, varieties of a language or even speech styles. “while Bokamba (1989) defines both concepts thus: “Code-switching is the mixing of words, phrases
and sentences from two distinct grammatical (sub)systems across sentence boundaries within the same speech even. Code-mixing is the embedding of various linguistic units such as affixes (bound morphemes), words (unbound morphemes), phrases and clauses from a cooperative activity where the participants, in order to in infer what is intended, must reconcile what they hear with what they understand. “Code switching is not a display of deficient language knowledge: a grammarless
Very often the expression code mixing is used synonymously with code switching and means basically intra-sentential code switching. However, recent research has given new meaning to this term. Maschler (1998) defines code mixing or a mixed code as “using two languages such that a third, new code emerges, in which elements
from the two languages are incorporated into a structurally definable pattern”. In other words, the code mixing hypothesis states that when two code switched languages constitute the appearance of a third code it has structural characteristics special to that new code.
Code Switching
Code switching is a situation where the speakers deliberately change a code being used, by switching from one to another. Code switching can be generally defined as the phenomenon where in a bilingual or multilingual speaker shifts from one language to another in the course of a conversation. Among several definitionsof code switching, the following two shouldgive the clarity needed to understand the concept.
Code switching has become a common term to alternate use of two or more languages, or varieties of language, or even a speech styles. (Dell Hymes, 1875)
from using Indonesian at home to using English at work or school, the act of changing codes would not normally be classified as code switching.
a. Tag code switching, it happens when a bilingual inserts shorts expressions (tag) from different language at the end of his/her utterance. Here the example below are taken from the dialogues done by the staffs.
Elan : “aku duluan ya, see you tomorrow.”
b. Intersentential code switching, it happens when there is a complete sentence in a foreign language uttered between two sentence in a base language. Here the example below is taken from dialogue done by the staffs.
Maylena: “ Kelana, Iain suruh kau ke IOM, ask about the exact date for new classes.”
c. Intrasentential code switching, it happens when a word, a phrase, or a clause of a foreign language is found within the sentence in a base language. The example below is taken from the dialogue done by the staff.
Kelana: “ Semua udah tahu kok kalo memang dia black hole nya.”
Code Mixing
Studying about code switching is usually followed by code mixing. Both of them are usually happened in bilingual society. Because of that, people sometimes are difficult to different those. Many opinions mention about the differences between code switching and code mixing. But in certainly, code switching is used by its functioning and by aware of speaker based on some reason.
languages characteristic. Istiati stated Sumber dari campur kode bisa dating dari kemampuan berbahasa, bisa pula datang dari kemampuan berkomunikasi, yakni tingkah laku ( Mutmainnah, 2008:46). When the speaker uses code mixing because of their habits to make easy in communication as the result of culture system, social system, or personality system in continuity, therefore that indication come from behavior system. It means that this indication come from the ability of communication. There are some types of code mixing:
1. Intra-sentential switching / code mixing
This kind of code mixing occurs within a phrase, a clause or a sentence boundary, Kelana: “I started going like this. Terus dia bilang (and then he said), look at the mark stamped on my skin.”
2. Intra-lexical code mixing
This kind of code mixing which occurs within a word boundary, such as in Maylena: “Yaudah laa, udah ter -scan juga kok.”
3. Involving a change of pronunciation
Reason of Code Switching and Code Mixing
When code switching or code mixing occurs, the motivation or reasons of the
speaker is an important consideration in the process. According to Hoffman (1991:116), there are a number of reasons for bilingual or multilingual person to switch or mix their languages. Those are:
1. Talking about a particular topic
People sometimes prefer to talk about a particular topic in one language rather thanin another. Sometimes, a speaker feels free and more comfortable to express his/her emotional feelings in a language that is not his/her everyday language.
The case can be found in Singapore, in which English language is used to discuss trade or a business matter, Mandarin for international “Chinese” language, Malay as
the language of the region, and Tamil as the language of one of the important ethnic groups in the republic.
2. Quoting somebody else
A speaker switches code to quote a famous expression, proverb, or saying of some well-known figures. The switch involves just the words that the speaker is claiming the quoted person said. The switch like a set of quotation marks. In Indonesian, those well-known figures are mostly from some English-speaking countries. Then, because many of the Indonesian people nowadays are good in English, those famous expressions or sayings can be quoted intact in their original language. For example: A: Bolehkah saya tahu nama anda, Pak? (May I know your name, Sir?)
In this conversation, B answers tche question from A with the famous proverb ‘what is a name.’
3. Being emphatic about something (express solidarity)
As usual, when someone who is talking using a language that is not his native language suddenly wants to be emphatic about something, he either intentionally or unintentionally, will switch from his second language to his first language. Or, on the other hand, he switches from his second language to his first language because he feels more convenient to be emphatic in his second language rather that in his first language.
4. Interjection (inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors)
Interjection is words or expressions, which are inserted into a sentence to convey surprise, strong emotion, or to gain attention. Interjection is a short exclamation like: Darn!, Hey!, Well!, Look!, etc. They have no grammatical value, but speaker uses them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing.
Language switching and language mixing among bilingual or multilingual people can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence connector. It may happen unintentionally.
The following are examples of the usage of interjection in sentences: 1. Indonesian_English
5. Repetition used for clarification
When a bilingual or multilingual person wants to clarify his speech so that it will be understood better by listener, he can sometimes use both of the languages (codes) that he masters to say the same message. Frequently, a message in one code is repeated in the other code literally. A repetition is not only served to clarify what is said, but also to amplify or emphasize a message.
6. Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor
When bilingual or multilingual person talks to another bilingual/multilingual, there will be lots of code switching and code mixing occurs. It means to make the content of his speech runs smoothly and can be understood by the listener. A message in one code is repeated in the other code in somewhat modified form.
7. Expressing group identity
Code switching and code mixing can also be used to express group identity. The way of communication of academic people in their disciplinary groupings, are obviously different from the other groups. In other words, the way of communication of one community is different from the people who are out of the community.
Saville-Troike (1986:69) also gives some additional reasons for bilingual and multilingual person to switch or mix their languages, these are:
8. To soften or strengthen request or command
strengthen a command since the speaker can feel more powerful than the listener because he can use a language that everybody cannot.
9. Because of real lexical need
The most common reason for bilingual/multilingual person to switch or mix their languages is due to the lack of equivalent lexicon in the languages. When an English- Indonesian bilingual has a word that is lacking in English; he will find it easier to say it in Indonesian. And vice versa, when he has a word that is lacking in Indonesian, he will use the English term. If it put into Indonesian, the meaning will be hazy / vague, and sometime it would not be used. For example, in Indonesia, the technical topics are firmly associated with English and the topic itself can trigger a switch or mix to/with English.
10. To exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited
audience
Sometimes people want to communicate only to certain people or community they belong to. To avoid the other community or interference objected to their communication by people, they may try to exclude those people by using the language that no everybody knows.
Additional Reason for Code Switching and Code Mixing
Bathia an Ritchie (2004) in Kim Eun Hee’s article proposed four reasons why
people mix or switch their language, they are; participants roles and relationship, situational factors, message intrinsic factors and language attitudes, dominance and security.
language. In this thesis, it is found when the speaker must speak to the English native-speaking teachers. They must switch the language from Bahasa Indonesia to English so that the listener understand the conversation.
Situational factors (setting, topic, class, gender, religion, age) also can be the reason why the speaker switch and mix their language. The place of the observation is English course, so this place will influence the speakers to switch and mix the language because there are more than one language is found and uttered there.
Message-Intrinsic Factors (idioms and deep rooted cultural wisdom, Topic-Comment/Relative Clauses, Reiteration, Quotation, Hedging, Interjection) also can be the reason for the speaker switch and mix the languge. Some of them often found in CaSE Education staffs conversation in their daily activity.
Language attitude, dominance and security is ignored by the writer. In this population, another language is accepted to involve in a conversation so the speakers or the samples can mix or switch their language freely. There is no situation that makes the sample feel not secure then they mix or switch their language. The samples are CaSE Education staffs who can speak English fluently enough, so they can mix or switch their language and accept it well.
Difference between Code Switching and Code Mixing
Actually, it is not easy to differentiate between code mixing and code switching. However, we can find some indicators related to the differences of these two sociolinguistics terms, code switching and code mixing. First, in code mixing, bilingual speakers seem to apply some words or
are said to mix codes when there is no topic that changes, nor does the situation. (John J Gumperz 1986) in Jendra, 2010:79.
A different view proposed to separate the two said that if it involves changing into a foreign clause or a sentence, it should be defined as a code switching, but if it involves the use of foreign phrases or group of words, it is identified as a code mixing. Another view about how to define between code switching and code mixing is related to the formality of the situation. In code mixing, is said to be found in the less formal situation, while in code switching is possibly done in a formal one. As the addition, the bilingual’s level of fluency in the languages (code), usually fluent
bilinguals can perform mixing well, while the less skilled ones may only do switching.
