i
AN ANALYSIS ON WORD FORMATION USED IN PEPSI AND
COCA-COLA ADVERTISEMENTS PUBLISHED IN UNITED
STATES FROM 1950 UNTIL 2012
A SARJANA PENDIDIKAN THESIS
Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree
in English Language Education
By
Felicita Devi Adyaningtyas Student Number: 091214097
ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION
SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA
iv
“W hen you w ant something, al the
universe conspires in helping you to
achieve it.”
vii ABSTRACT
Adyaningtyas, Felicita Devi. (2013). An Analysis on Word Formation Used in Pepsi
and Coca-cola Advertisements Published in United States from 1950 until 2012.
Yogyakarta: English Language Education Study Program, Department of Language and Arts, Faculty of Teachers Training and Education. Sanata Dharma University.
The influence of advertisements in the language system exists as found in the expression “uncola”, the expression issued by Coca-cola company when they launched and promoted the new type of soft drink, 7UP. Based on this phenomenon, the researcher claims that it is interesting to study the relation between the words and the expressions used in the advertisements and the influence in word-formation since the expressions are unique, creative and able to attract the consumers’ attention.
There were two research problems addressed in the research, first, to classify and analyze the word formation used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements and second, to discover the most frequently word formation used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements.
The research was qualitative research and it used the document analysis method. The data were taken from Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements that were published in the United States from 1950 until 2012 by using the stratified sampling method, meaning that the researcher merely took one sample of each advertisement for each year. To solve the first research problem, the researcher employed the theories of word formation from Aronoff and Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004), Katamba (1993) and O’Grady and de Guzman (2011) to classify and to analyze the data. There were eleven word types proposed to classify and analyze the data, namely borrowing, cliticization, coinage, acronym, initialism, blending, clipping, back-formation, conversion, derivation and inflection. To solve the second research problem, the researcher counted the data that had been classified based on the theories from Aronoff and Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004), Katamba (1993) and O’Grady and de Guzman (2011).
The results of the research were that out of eleven word formation types proposed, there were eight word formation types used in the data, namely borrowing, cliticization, initialism, blending, clipping, conversion, derivation and inflection. Inflection turned out to be the most frequently word formation used with 49.6%. It is followed by derivation (24.6), cliticization (19.22%), borrowing (1.5%), clipping (1.5%), conversion (1.5%), blending (1.2%) and initialism (0.5%).
viii ABSTRAK
Adyaningtyas, Felicita Devi. (2013). An Analysis on Word Formation Used in Pepsi
and Coca-cola Advertisements Published in United States from 1950 until 2012.
Yogyakarta: Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris, Jurusan Pendidikan Bahasa dan Seni, Fakultas Keguruan dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Universitas Sanata Dharma.
Pengaruh iklan di sistem tata bahasa dapat dilihat dalam kata uncola yang dibuat oleh Coca-cola ketika mereka mempromosikan produk minuman ringan 7UP. Fenomena ini tentunya menarik untuk dikaji lebih dalam, terutama hubungan kata-kata dan ekspresi yang digunakan dalam iklan dan pengaruhnya di pembentukan kata-kata.
Permasalahan kedua adalah menemukan pembentukan kata yang paling banyak digunakan di iklan Coca-cola dan Pepsi. Penelitian ini bersifat kualitatif dan menggunakan metode dokumen analisis. Permasalahan pertama dalam penelitian ini adalah mengklasifikasikan dan menganalisis pembentukan kata di iklan Coca-cola dan Pepsi. Data yang digunakan bersumber dari iklan Coca-cola dan Pepsi yang diterbitkan di Amerika Serikat dari tahun 1950 hingga tahun 2012. Metode pengambilan data menggunakan stratified sampling, sehingga data yang diambil hanya satu untuk setiap merek produk dan untuk setiap tahunnya. Untuk menjawab permasalahan pertama, peneliti menggunakan teori pembentukan kata dari Aronoff dan Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004), Katamba (1993) dan O’Grady dan de Guzman (2011) untuk mengklasifikasi dan menganalisis data. Sebelas tipe pembentukan kata digunakan untuk menglasifikasi dan menganalisis data, seperti adaptasi, klitik, coinage, akronim, initialism, blending, haplologi, back-formation, konversi, derivasi dan infleksi. Untuk menjawab permasalahan kedua, peneliti menghitung frekuensi kemunculan data setelah dilakukan klasifikasi.
Hasil dari penelitian ini adalah hanya ada delapan pembentukan kata yang digunakan, seperti adaptasi, klitik, initialism, blending, haplologi, konversi, derivasi dan infleksi. Infleksi menjadi salah satu tipe pembentukan kata yang paling banyak digunakan dengan frekuensi kemunculan sebesar 49,6%, disusul dengan derivasi (24,6%), klitik (19,22%), adaptasi (1,5%), haplologi (1,5%), konversi (1,5%),
blending (1,2%) dan initialism (0,5%).
ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
First and foremost, I thank Father and Jesus Christ for life, chances, blessings and
everything.
I would like to send my gratitude to my parent, Andri Asmara and Gunandarini
Anastasia, for endless love and support. I also thank my sister, Giovani, for not
disturbing me during the process of finishing the thesis.
I would like to send my gratitude to my advisor, Dr. Retno Muljani, M.Pd for the
advice, guidance, time and support during the process of thesis writing. I would like
to express my gratitude to Yuseva Ariyani Iswandari, S.Pd., M.Ed for being a great
proofreader and giving me advice.
I would like to thank my best friends, Raras Pramudita and Ignatia Bintang for
their support and trust.
I send my gratitude to Elegy for letting me be a part of theirs and Golden Lantern
Company for the process, professionalism and hardwork in SPD class.
I personally thank bibik Aldine and kakak Maris for checking my thesis and
reminding me the errors, being partners in editor team and celebrating our defense
together.
For Class B friends, Ajeng, Sinta, Tintin, Endah ‘Kebedetch’, Yie, Ksatria Kuda
Putih Rosi and Hencer unnie, Yogis, Awang, Hana, Chapidh, and kakak bos Lice
and other brilliant Class B friends, I send my deepest gratitude for friendship,
birthday surprises, Class B on Vacations, library-time, the courses we have had and
the lessons of life we have learned. I am proud to be the member of class B batch
x
Finally, I thank all of my PBI batch 2009 friends for the unforgettable moments and
the amazing four years we have had been through. I hope our friendship stay
memorable as yesterday’s, precious as today’s and everlasting as forever’s.
xi
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
xii
6. Word Formation ………..
a. Definition of Word Formation ………..
b. Types of Word Formation ………
7. Communication ………...
8. Advertisement ……….
a. Definition of Advertisement ……….
b. Functions of Advertisement ………..
c. Types of Advertisement ………
d. Linguistics Features in Advertisement ………..
e. Coca-Cola and Pepsi Advertising Strategies ….
2. Theoretical Framework ……….
CHAPTER III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
A. Research Method ……….
B. Research Setting ………..
C. Research Sources of Data ………
D. Research Instruments ………..
E. Data Gathering Techniques ……….
F. Data Analysis Techniques ………...
G. Research Procedures ………...
CHAPTER IV. RESEARCH RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
xiii
8. Inflection ………...
a. Affixation ………
b. Apophony or Internal Change ……….
c. Suppletion ………
d. Partial Suppletion ………
B. The Frequency of Word Formation Used in Coca-cola and
Pepsi Advertisements ………..
CHAPTER V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A. Conclusions ……….
B. Recommendations ………...
REFERENCES ……….
APPENDICES ……….. 59
59
63
63
64
66
69
69
71
73
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
2.1 English Inflectional Morphemes Adapted from O’Grady and de
Guzman (2011) ………... 23
3.1 Table of Word Formation Types (Adapted from Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004), Aronoff and Fudeman (2011), and Katamba (1993))………. 35
3.2 The Frequency of Word Formation Cases ……….. 36
4.1 The Occurrences of Borrowing ………... 43
4.2 The Occurrences of Cliticization ………..……….. 46
4.3 The Occurrences of Clipping ………..……… 48
4.4 The Occurrences of Initialism ………..………... 49
4.5 The Occurrences of Blend ………..……… 51
4.6 The Occurrences of Conversion ………..………... 53
4.7 The Occurrences of Derivation ………..……… 58
4.8 The Occurrences of Inflection ………..………... 64
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
2.1 The Illustration of The Difference Between a Root and a Base
Based on O’Grady and De Guzman (2011: 120) ………. 17
4.1 The Derivational Process of Entertainment ………. 55
4.2 The Derivational Process of Refreshment ……… 55
4.3 The Derivational Process of Goodness ……… 56
4.4 The Derivational Process of Cokeologist ………. 56
4.5 The Derivational Process of Beautiful ………. 57
4.6 The Derivational Process of Refreshingly ……… 57
xvi
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix Page
1 The Samples of Coca-cola Advertisements ………. 78
2 The Samples of Pepsi Advertisements ………. 79
3 The Word Formation Cases in Coca-cola Advertisements ….. 80
xvii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
BOR : Borrowing
CLT : Cliticization
COI : Coinage
ACR : Acronym
INT : Initialism
BLE : Blending
CLP : Clipping
BFO : Back-formation
CON : Conversion
DER : Derivation
1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter consists of six parts. The first part is the background of the
study. The second part is the problem formulation that addresses the problems of
the study. The third part is the problem limitation. The fourth part is the research
objectives. The fifth part is the research benefit. The sixth part is the definition of
terms.
A. Research Background
Languages, including their internal morphology system, change from time
to time. In addition, the growth of speech communities causes languages as a
mean for communication undergo changes. New words are therefore formed
almost every day. It is similar to Wagner’s study that “the human community is
steadily growing and developing, just as the tool we use to communicate:
Language” (Wagner, 2010). It implies that as the human communities grow and
develop, the languages that the human communities use also undergo changes.
Further, there are many reasons why languages change. One of the reasons why
languages change is globalization (Ota, 1996). Globalization, according to
Featherstone (1995, as cited in Acar, 2004), is “a multi-way, heteregonizing and
enriching process allowing local cultures open up to the world and
contribute to cultural diversity”. Nowadays, the term globalization is related to
Westernization or Americanization since the United States is now the sole
superpower with a dominant economic, cultural and military position in the global
order (Giddens, 2000, as cited in Acar, 2004). The effect of the globalization or
Americanization can refer to the bloom of American products. Regarding the
linguistics, the American products influence the process of coining new words.
The contribution of American products towards the process of coining new words
can be seen through the presence of the advertisements of the products.
Advertisement, which is derived from the Medieval Latin verb advertere,
aims to direct one's attention to the availability, qualities, and/or cost of the
specific commodities or services (El-daly, 2011). Advertisements therefore focus
on how to gain one’s attention towards the specific product(s). In linguistics,
advertisements contribute to the influence of the new word forms. Since
advertisements are the tool to promote the products’ name and to persuade the
consumers to buy the products, the advertisers create the unique brand names and
the attractive expressions. The brand names and the expressions used in the
advertisements are able to lead the speakers to form the new words. Moreover, the
influence of the new word forms from the advertisements can spread quickly in
the society because the existence of advertisements seems to be everywhere.
Advertisements appear almost in form of every media, such as written forms
(newspapers, pamphlets, ballyhoos) and verbal forms (television, radio, internet).
According to Gardner and Levy (1955), a brand name does not only represent
created as unique as possible to gain attention and to attract more consumers.
Kohli and LaBahn state that “a carefully created and chosen name can bring
inherent and immediate value to the brand” (Kohli & LaBahn, 1997). With the
existence of brand names spread by the advertisements, the new word forms are
often established because of the influence of the particular brand names. The
phenomena of the new word formation influenced by the brand names, for
instance, occur in the soft drink advertisements, specifically in the Coca-cola
advertisements. The advertisers of Coca-cola company used a new term uncola to
launch and promote a new type of soft drink from Coca-cola company, 7UP.
Issuing the term uncola to promote the drink successfully disobeys the linguistic
role (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2010: 85). The process of forming uncola
involves the addition of a morpheme, the smallest meaningful unit, un- and a noun
cola. In fact, “there is no rule of English that allows un- to be added to the noun”
(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2010: 85). The word cola is the brand name from
the company, Coca-cola. It can be concluded therefore that the advertisers used
the derivation that builds the new words by adding some morphemes to the stems
(Wagner, 2010). In coining the word uncola, the advertisers added the morpheme
un- to the stem cola. Based on this phenomenon, derivation, one of the word
formation types, is applied for creating the advertisements.
It is interesting to study the relation between the words and the expressions
used in the advertisements and the influence in word formation since the
expression uncola, the researcher claims that the process in the word formation is
still left unnoticed. In fact, it is important to know the process since it involves
many aspects of linguistics and the formation of the new words in the
advertisements is occasionally uncommon. The researcher therefore chooses to
analyze the word formation used in the soft drink advertisements. The reasons for
choosing the soft drink advertisements are that the soft drink advertisements seem
to be everywhere and they can be found in any media whether it is online or
offline and whether it is written or spoken. Moreover, the famous brand names of
the soft drinks are Coca-cola and Pepsi. The two products are unquestionably
popular in the eyes of the consumers and their advertisements seem to be
everywhere. Coca-cola and Pepsi are not merely the beverages, but they are
capable of uniting the world and connecting people, particularly Coca-cola with
their ideas of equality and togetherness and the visions of classless society (Fritz,
1985). Coca-cola, first produced and sold in 1886, became more popular since the
product was introduced to the world. Since then, it becomes the symbol of the
American Dream (Fritz, 1985).
Besides, some of the studies related to the soft drink advertisements and the
word formation triggered the researcher to explore the study of advertisements
and the word formation deeper. One of the studies related to the soft drink
advertisements is the undergraduate thesis by Titus Febriandri Prasetyo entitled
“Pengaruh Iklan-Iklan Coca-cola Zero di Televisi Terhadap Minat Beli
content and time duration affected the consumer purchase interest. The focus is
different from the researcher’s since the researcher is going to analyze the
language used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements. Second, the other study
related to the advertisements is the undergraduate thesis by Desita Anggraeni
entitled “Word Formation Process in Outdoor Advertisements”. Anggraeni
studied the word formation found in the outdoor advertisements in Semarang. She
did not limit the advertisements of the specific products to be studied, but she
analyzed all the advertisements published in the outdoor billboards. Different
from Anggraeni’s undergraduate thesis, the researcher focuses on the specific
advertisements, which are Coca-cola and Pepsi. Hence, unlike the two previous
studies by Prasetyo and Anggraeni, the researcher focuses on the language used in
the advertisements and limits the scopes of the study. The researcher only selects
Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements as the sources of the data.
B. Research Problems
Based on the research background, there are two research problems
addressed in this study. First, what are types of word formation used in the
Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements? Second, what are types of word formation that are
frequently used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements?
C. Problem Limitation
The limitation of the research is to discover the answers to the two
advertisements. Since there are many soft drink brands, there will be enormous
types of word formation. Therefore, the researcher decides to focus on the soft
drink brand names mainly Coca-cola and Pepsi. The reasons for choosing the two
soft drink brands are that Coca-cola and Pepsi are not merely the soft drinks, but
they have become the symbol of American Dream and they are able to unite their
consumers in diversity. Moreover, instead of choosing the local versions, the
researcher took the version of Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements issued in the
United States of America. The consideration for choosing the American version is
that the language and the contents are going to be analyzed linguistically in
English. Besides, the version issued in the United States of America is globally
known rather than the local versions issued in countries other than the United
States of America.
D. Research Objectives
Based on the problem formulations, there are two research objectives
addressed in this study. First is to classify and analyze the types of word
formation used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements. Second is to identify
the most frequently word formation used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi
This section provides the benefits of the research for the English language
learners and the future researchers.
1. To the English Language Learners
Through this study, the English language learners, particularly English as
foreign language (EFL) learners, are expected to know more about the word
formation that is truly occurring in the learners’ environment, for instance,
through the advertisements that are widely published ubiquitously. The languages
that are used in the advertisements intend to attract the consumers. Therefore, the
languages are commonly unique and they occasionally involve the uncommon
grammatical processes to create the new words. The phenomena can be studied
more in morphology since the word formation is one of the scopes in morphology.
By knowing the process of word formation found in the advertisements, the
learners are expected not only to be the followers of the new word users. The
learners can improve their vocabulary items from the process of coining new
words and they can use the vocabulary items wisely in the further study or in the
daily communication.
2. To the Future Researchers
Advertisements and linguistics are the interesting fields to study. They are
ubiquitous and widely used in the society. The number of advertisements is
growing each day as the emergence of new products and the brand names,
particularly those that come from America. However, according to Stvan (2006),
therefore expected that in the future research, there will be more ideas and
frameworks to study in this field.
F. Definition of Terms
This section defines the terms that will be used in the study, namely the
definition of advertisement, Coca-cola, Pepsi and word formation.
1. Advertisement
El-Daly (2011) states that advertisement, which is derived from the
Medieval Latin verb “advertere”, aims to direct one's attention to the availability,
qualities, and/or cost of the specific commodities or services. On the other hand,
advertising is a form of communication used to persuade the audiences (viewers,
readers or listeners) to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or services
(Agustrijanto, 2002, as cited in Anggraeni, 2011). In this study, the
advertisements that will be used are soft drink advertisements, specifically
Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements which are taken from the various online sources
through the search engine Google.
2. Coca-cola
Coca-cola was developed by Dr. John Pemberton, a pharmacist in Atlanta,
Georgia, in 1886 (Michman & Mazze, 1998). Further, Michman and Mazze state
that Coca-cola has been on the top of the soft drink industries with market share
range 37% - 47%. In marketing the products, Coca-cola creates the attractive
analyzed linguistically.
3. Pepsi
Pepsi, managed by manufacturer Pepsi-Cola, was created in 1893 by Caleb
Bradham, a pharmacist, when he developed a unique mixture of kola nut extract,
vanilla and rare oils. Originally called ‘‘Brad’s drink’’ by his customers, it is now
known as Pepsi-Cola (Michman & Mazze, 1998). Since its development, Pepsi
has been competing with Coca-cola in the soft drink industries. However, rather
than be a “leader”, Pepsi is still considered to be a “follower” (Michman &
Mazze, 1998). Furthermore, Pepsi advertisements become the object of the study.
The languages and expressions used in Pepsi advertisements will be analyzed
based on the linguistics study.
4. Word Formation
Bauer defines word formation as the process whereby new words are
coined to denote new, or newly salient, concepts, and secondly a transpositional
function (Bauer, 2004). Moreover, Bauer provides two functions in word
formation, first, a function of lexical enrichment, and second, a function of
lexemes in which the lexemes appear in a new word class so that the same
meaning can be transferred to a new function in a sentence (Bauer, 2004). In this
study, there are eleven word formation types. The word formation types are
compiled from the studies of Aronoff and Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983),
10 CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
The contents of this chapter attempt to explain the theories related to the
research. This chapter consists of two parts, namely the theoretical description and
the theoretical framework. The theoretical description presents the theories of
morphology, such as morphology, word, morpheme, affix, root, stem and base, word
formation, advertisement and theory of communication which become the foundation
of the research. The theoretical framework provides the main theories to solve the
research problems.
A. Theoretical Description
This section discusses the two major parts of theoretical description, namely
the word formation theories and the advertising theories. The word formation theories
contain the theories which encompass the scopes of word formation, namely
morphology, word and lexeme, morpheme, affix, root, stem and base and word
formation types. The advertising theories discuss the theories which are relevant to
the advertising cases. The theoretical description begins from morphology focusing
on the definition of morphology in general since the word formation is a study under
morphology. The next parts are the theories related to the terms that will be used to
analyze the word formation cases, namely word and lexeme, morpheme, affix, root,
consist of two sections, namely the definition of word formation and the types of
word formation. The next parts discuss the theories related to the advertising, such as
communication and advertisement.
1. Morphology
Matthews (1991: 5) states that by the beginning of the 1960s, morphology
traditionally deals with the word since the word was merely one term in a hierarchy
of units. Matthews (1991: 5) provides the example in “They are trying hard, the
words are and trying would constitute a phrase are trying “. However, as the phrase
are trying consists of the elements from the words are and trying, the word trying
also has its elements try- and ing. Therefore, according to Matthews (1991:9),
morphology is no longer dealing with the words, but it deals with the internal
structure of words as it is explained in the previous example trying. Further, Katamba
(1993) defines morphology as synchronic discipline focusing on the study on word
structure. Regarding the topic discussed, morphology encompasses the phenomenon
of word formation since word formation is one of the branches of morphology (Plag,
2002: 4). Based on the definitions of morphology stated by Matthews, Katamba and
Plag, morphology is concluded as one of the branches in the linguistics focusing on
the study on internal word structure which will be the groundwork for this study on
2. Word and Lexeme
Speakers of language utter millions of words every day as one of the ways to
communicate and keep in touch with others. Not only does it occur in spoken
communication, a word also occurs in the literacy and oral form. People use words to
make communication and connection with others. The words are uttered every day.
Hence, there is a huge possibility that new word forms. The forming of new words
involves the word formation. However, before moving further to the word formation,
the essential meaning of a word itself should be examined. Matthews (1974) proposes
the definition of word in two senses. Sense 1 refers to the definition of word
phonetically. A word consists of syllables and ultimately letters or phonemes and it is
considered the primitives or minimal elements of the secondary articulation of
language (Matthews, 1974: 24). The example based on Matthews’ study is the word
country, which phonetically consists of [kʌn] and [tri] with stress on the first syllable.
Sense 2 refers to the definition of word in grammatical and syntactic context.
Matthews (1974: 25) states that word in sense 2 belongs to the grammatical
articulation of language and its properties are most usually characteristic of syntactic
classification (for instance, see is a verb) or of meaning (for example, die is in one
sense opposite in meaning to live).
After having described the definition of word, the researcher is going to
employs the example that has been illustrated by Katamba (1993: 17) in the sentence
as follows:
He went to the pub for a pint and then pockled off.
Based on the example, Katamba (1993) provides the description of lexeme.
When the readers find the word pockled as an unfamiliar word, they probably look up
in the dictionary under the word pockle instead of pockled. Katamba assumes that
they know that pockled is not going to be listed in the dictionary. Furthermore, they
also know that the words pockling and pickles will also exist. Therefore, Katamba
(1993) concludes that lexeme is an abstract vocabulary item (p. 17). Further, a lexeme
is generally written in its citation form, for instance BOOK (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011:
43), that is written in the small capital letters. Similar to pockle, the words see, saw,
seen, sees and seeing are the realizations of the lexeme SEE. Moreover, regarding this
research, the term word and lexeme will be used in the analysis of data and discussion
of the research.
3. Morpheme
In the previous topic discussed, it is stated that morphology is the study on the
internal structure of word. Word is occasionally claimed as the smallest unit of
language that cannot be divided into smaller parts, as there are words the, at, desk,
which are morphologically simple (Katamba, 1993). However, Katamba states that
there are still many English words which are morphologically complex as depicted in
into smaller units. In morphology, the element –s which is attached to the word eats
is defined as a morpheme. Unlike the word eats which can be broken down into
smaller parts, the morpheme –s cannot be broken down into smaller parts. Thus, a
morpheme is described as “the minimal meaningful element” (Spencer, 1991: 5). In
other words, a morpheme is used to describe the smallest unit of language. For
instance, according to Spencer’s theory, develop is considered a morpheme in
addition to be a word. In short, morpheme cannot be decomposed into smaller units
(Spencer, 1991: 5). Further, O’Grady and de Guzman (2011) distinguish morphemes
from the situation that they can stand alone or not into a free morpheme and a bound
morpheme. A free morpheme is “a morpheme that can be a word by itself, whereas
the morpheme that must be attached to another element is a bound morpheme” (p.
117). The morpheme girl, for example, is a free morpheme since it can stand alone as
a word, but the plural form –s is a bound morpheme. It cannot stand alone; thus, it
must be attached to a free morpheme. Moreover, in this study, the definition of
morpheme will be used to refer to the smallest unit that occurs in the analysis of the
data.
4. Affix
Morphemes can be distinguished between free morphemes and bound
morphemes as stated previously. The bound morphemes, the morphemes that must be
attached to the free morphemes, can be called affixes. According to O’Grady and
bound, but must be bound in a particular position”. Further, Parker (1986: 69) states
that an affix is “the more familiar term for the class of bound grammatical
morphemes”. In short, affix is a bound morpheme, meaning that it must be attached
to a free form so it can stand as a word. There are two types of affix, namely prefix
and suffix. The classification of affix is based on its occurrences in the base. Prefix is
an affix that is attached in front of the base, for example, prefix in the word
de-activate. Suffix is an affix attached to the end of the base, such as suffix –er in the
worker (O’Grady & de Guzman, 2011: 120). Affix is involved in the creation of
word, as seen in the affix –er in worker. It is therefore used as a component to
identify and analyze the creation of word in the word formation.
5. Root, Stem and Base
A root, according to Katamba (1993: 41), is “the irreducible core of a word,
with absolutely nothing else attached to it”. In other words, a root is the core of the
word in which it is not yet attached and added to other elements. For example, the
word worker has work as the root and –er as the suffix. Further, the root typically
belongs to a lexical category, such as noun, verb, adjective, or preposition (O’Grady
& de Guzman, 2011: 119). Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams (2010: 80) share the same
opinion with Katamba to define a root that a root is “a lexical content morpheme that
cannot be analyzed into smaller parts.” On the other hand, according to O’Grady and
de Guzman, a root is also a base (in many cases) to which the affix is added (O’Grady
Fromkin et al. (2010) and O’Grady and de Guzman (2011), the researcher concludes
that a root can be the core element in which it has not attached yet to other elements
and it cannot be analyzed into smaller parts. Moreover, it is the element to which the
affix is added.
A base, according to Katamba (1993: 45), is any unit to which either
inflectional affixes or derivational affixes can be added. However, there is a specific
term in dealing with inflectional affixes. A stem is used to deal with inflectional
morphology, including inflectional affixes (Bauer, 1983: 20). Bauer (1983) provides
the example in the word untouchables. The stem is untouchable and the inflectional
suffix –s is added to the stem. She (1983) concludes that “stem is the part of
word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed” (p. 20).
Katamba also proposes that all roots are bases. The definition of a base is
similar to O’Grady and de Guzman’s study (2011:119) that a base is also a root.
However, O’Grady and de Guzman enhance Katamba’s theory that a base can be
larger than a root since a root is always a single morpheme. In order to illustrate
O’Grady and de Guzman’s study, a tree diagram is used. The tree diagram is used to
“represent the hierarchical organization of words (and sentences)” (Fromkin, Rodman
& Hyams, 2010: 84). The tree diagram depicted in Figure 2.1 is to illustrate O’Grady
Figure 2.1 The illustration of the difference between a root and a base based on
O’Grady and de Guzman (2011: 120)
Based on Figure 2.1, black is a root since it has nothing to attach yet and it
cannot be divided and analyzed into smaller parts. When the suffix –en is added to
black, it becomes blacken which is a base for -ed. Blacken is not a root since it can be
divided into smaller parts (black and suffix –en). Black is therefore a root for the
entire word and it becomes the base for -en. On the other hand, blacken is simply the
base for –ed (O’Grady & de Guzman, 2011: 120). The root, base and stem therefore
are used as the terminologies to identify the creation of word in word formation
whether the word contains a root, a base, or a stem.
6. Word Formation
This part provides the theories which are relevant to word formation, namely
the definition of word formation and the types of word formation.
Base for -ed
a. Definition of Word Formation
Bauer defines word formation as the process whereby new words are coined
to denote new, or newly salient, concepts and secondly a transpositional function
(Bauer, 2004). Moreover, Akmajian, Demers, Farmer and Harnish (2001) state that
new words enter a language through the process in word formation. It can be
concluded that word formation is related to the creation of new words.
b. Types of Word Formation
Word formation involves morphemes, affixes and words to form the new
words. The processes involve the addition, the deletion and the modification of the
internal structure of a word, for instance, the addition of the morphemes, affixes and
the modification of the bases. In this study, there are 11 word formation types
proposed based on the theories from Aronoff and Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983),
Campbell (2004), Katamba (1993) and O’Grady and de Guzman (2011).
The first type is borrowing. It is the linguistic process of taking words from
another language and making them part of its own vocabulary (Campbell, 2004: 62).
Further, Campbell states that the vocabulary that has been borrowed is called
loanwords. Borrowing is not restricted to only words or lexical items taken from one
language into another, but it is related to any linguistic material – phonological rules,
grammatical morphemes, syntactic patterns, semantic associations, discourse
strategies and any linguistic material that can be borrowed (Campbell, 2004: 62).
There are terms to distinguish between the language which borrows and the language
donor language is the language which is borrowed from (Campbell, 2004: 62). The
example is a loanword cuisine. Cuisine is an English word which is borrowed from
French. Therefore, English is a recipient language and French is a donor language.
There are two types of borrowing according to Akmajian et al. (2001), namely direct
and indirect borrowing. For direct borrowing, the speakers of English often borrow
words from other languages, such as kindergarten (German), croissant (French) and
sushi (Japanese) (Akmajian et al., 2001: 27). On the other hand, indirect borrowing
occurs “when an expression in one language is translated literally into another
language” (Akmajian et al., 2001: 28). Akmajian et al. (2001) employ the term
firewater as the example of indirect borrowing. Firewater is the literal translation of
Native American word meaning “alcohol”. Regarding the reasons why borrowing
happens, languages borrow from one another because of need and prestige
(Campbell, 2004: 64). Campbell (2006) states that the speakers of a language need
the new terms to go along with the acquisition when they acquire some new items or
concepts from abroad (p. 64). Besides, the other main reason is that words are
borrowed from another language since the foreign terms are highly esteemed
(Campbell, 2004: 64).
The second type is cliticization. Cliticization is the linguistic process
occurring when grammatical words are unable to stand alone phonologically and they
must ‘lean’ on an adjacent word (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 36). The adjacent word
is known as a host, whereas the grammatical words that undergo cliticization are
the contracted forms of the English auxiliary verbs, am becomes ‘m, is becomes ‘s
and are becomes ‘re (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 41). The example is ‘m in the
sentence I’m leaving now. Moreover, clitics are classified by their positions to the
hosts. Proclitic is a clitic attached to the beginning of a host and enclitic is one
attached to the end of the host (Katamba, 1993: 245). Katamba (1993: 245) provides
the example of proclitic in a French article l’ when it is attached before a
vowel-commencing noun like ami as in l’ami. The example of enclitic is the morpheme –‘s
which marks a possessive noun in English, as in Russell’s car. Moreover, enclitic is
also known genitive suffix. Katamba (1993) proposes that a genitive suffix is
attached to the end of whatever word precedes the last noun of a genitive noun
phrase, as in the morpheme –‘s in Russell’s car.
The third type is coinage or word manufacture. It occurs “when a word is
created ex nihilo, with no morphological, phonological or orthographic motivation”
(Bauer, 1983: 239). The phenomenon commonly occurs in the case of product names
where the industry requires the attractive names for the products, such as Kodak,
Kleenex and Teflon (O’Grady & de Guzman, 1996: 160).
The fourth type is acronyms. Acronym is formed by taking the initial letters
of the words in a phrase or title and using them as a new word (Bauer, 1983: 237).
The common examples of acronyms are related to the names of organizations, such as
UNICEF for United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund and NATO for
North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Acronyms are to be distinguished from
& de Guzman, 2011: 141), for instance DC for District of Columbia and CD for
compact disc. Initialism is the fifth type of word formation types.
The sixth type is blend. Blend occurs when “a new lexeme is formed from
parts of two (or possibly more) other words in such a way that there is no transparent
analysis into morphs” (Bauer, 1983: 234). In other words, a blend is formed from the
combination of two words or more. The examples of blends in English are smog from
smoke + fog; motel from motor + hotel, spork from spoon and fork.
The seventh type is clipping. Clipping is the process whereby a lexeme is
shortened but it still remains the same meaning and becomes a member of the same
form class (Bauer, 1983: 233). According to Bauer (1983), the way in which the
lexeme is shortened can be in the beginning of the base, as in bi (< bisexual), mike
(<microphone), in the final part of the word, as in Cong (< Viet Cong) and in the
middle of the word, as in jams (< pyjamas) (p. 233). Another example of common
phenomena in clipping is the process of shortening the title Professor into Prof.
Besides, clipping also occurs in the process of shortening names – Elizabeth becomes
Liz; Susan becomes Sue. Clipping is sometimes called abbreviations (Fromkin,
Rodman & Hyams, 2010: 97).
The eighth type is backformation. Backformation is “the creation of a word
by removing what appears to be an affix” (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 122). It
happens because of an incorrect morphological analysis (Fromkin, Rodman &
Hyams, 2010: 97). Therefore, the incorrect morphological analysis is considered
word television based on analogy with –ion pairs, such as act/action, revise/revision
(Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2010: 97). The word edit is also formed by
backformation from the word editor.
The ninth type is conversion. Conversion is “the change in form of class of a
form without any corresponding change of form” (Bauer, 1983: 32). Bauer states that
conversion does not require any corresponding change of form. It implies that
conversion does not need the change of form or the addition of affixes to make the
changes of word class. The common type of conversion is the change from an
adjective to a noun, such as found in poor to the poor and a verb from a noun, to
button from button (the shirt). The verb poor does not require the addition of affixes
to undergo conversion into a noun.
The tenth type is derivation. Derivation is the morphological process that
results in the formation of new lexemes (Bauer, 1983: 27). The creation of new
lexemes involves the process of changing the category and/or the meaning of the base
to which it applies (O’Grady & Dobrovoisky, 1989). Fromkin, Rodman and Hyams
(2010) state that bound morphemes are called derivational morphemes. When they
are added to a root morpheme or stem, a new word with a new meaning is derived.
The form that results from the addition of a derivational morpheme is called a derived
word. Moreover, derivation involves the addition of affix to the base form. The affix
that is attached to the base form is called a derivational affix. Further, one of the
derivational affixes in English is suffix –er. It is mostly used to yield a verb to a
The eleventh type is inflection. According to Aronoff and Fudeman (2011:
47), inflection involves the formation of grammatical forms of a single lexeme, such
as past, present, future, singular, plural, masculine, feminine, neuter and other forms.
In English, it is often expressed by the affixes, such as in work + -s. There are seven
inflection types according to Aronoff and Fudeman (2011: 171-177). The seven
inflection types are affixation, apophony or internal change, partial suppletion,
reduplication, root-and-pattern, stem alternations and suppletion. Affixation is the
process of adding an affix to a root or a stem to form a new lexeme or an inflected
form or a stem of an existing lexeme (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011).
Table 2.1 English Inflectional Morphemes Adapted from O’Grady and de Guzman (2011)
English Inflectional Morphemes Examples
-s third-person singular present He wait-s at school.
-ed past tense He wait-ed at school.
-ing progressive He is wait-ing his parents. -en past participle He has eat-en five donuts.
-s plural He ate the donut-s.
-er comparative Russell has long-er hair than Sam. -est superlative Russell has the long-est hair.
As seen in Table 2.2, the English inflectional affixes refer to the English
tenses (past tense, progressive, past participle), noun inflectional affixes (plural) and
adjective inflectional affixes (comparative and superlative). O’Grady and de Guzman
actually lists morpheme –‘s that marks the noun referring to the possession. However,
Katamba (1993: 249) argues that morpheme –s that marks the possessor of something
belongs to cliticization and it is known enclitic. Therefore, the researcher omitts the
genitive suffix morpheme –s as the criterion to classify the data into inflection.
The next inflection type is apophony or internal change. It is the process that
involves the vowel changes within a root (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 173). The
second term of apohony, umlaut, is used to describe apophony found in the
singular-plural noun pairs, as in goose-geese or foot-feet. The third inflection type is
suppletion. Suppletion is “said to take place when the syntax requires a form of a
lexeme that is not morphologically predictable” (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 176).
The examples of English suppletion are the verbs is, am, are, was, were and be. There
are also suppletions with pronouns, as found in I and me or he and him. In certain
cases, English has also partial suppletion. Aronoff and Fudeman (2011) state that
partial suppletion occurs when the initial phoneme(s) of the word remain the same,
but there are internal changes and changes to the end of the word (p. 177). The
example of partial suppletion is think; thought. The fourth inflection type is
reduplication. Reduplication is formed when “a continuous substring from either the
beginning or the end of a word is copied”. Reduplication is commonly found in
Indonesia, for example, the Indonesian plural form, kuda-kuda means ‘horses’ or
rumah-rumah means ‘houses’. The fifth type is root-and-pattern. Root-and-pattern
involves “the internal variations in vocalic and syllabic patterns, while the
consonantal frame stays fairly stable” (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 174).
Root-and-pattern is commonly found in the Semitic language family, for instance, in Hebrew,
alternation. The example of stem alternation is the present stem and perfective stem
in Latin, po:t (present) and po:ta:v mean ‘drink’ (Aronoff & Fudeman, 2011: 177).
Since inflection is commonly marked by the addition of affixes as derivation
does, there are various criteria proposed by Aronoff and Fudeman (2011: 168-169) to
help distinguish between inflection and derivation. First, inflection does not change
grammatical category and meaning, whereas derivation does. The word apples, which
is added to a suffix –s, is still a noun although it is a plural form. The verb work
which is added to the derivational suffix –er undergoes change its grammatical
category into a noun worker. Second, the derivational affixes tend to occur closer to
the root or stem rather than the inflectional affixes. In other words, an inflectional
affix cannot be combined directly with the base when there is a derivational affix.
Moreover, in this study, the researcher used 11 word formation types based
on the theories proposed by Aronoff and Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983), Campbell
(2004), Katamba (1993) and O’Grady and de Guzman (2011) which have been stated
previously.
7. Communication
The words are used to deliver the messages in the communication process.
However, the words cannot be the only device to deliver the messages in the
communication process. There should be the transmitter and the receiver. In the
process of communication, Himstreet and Baty (1984) state briefly that
destination as undiluted or unchanged as possible”. It applies in the human language
communication when the speakers of language communicate. There is a transmitter
and the other one will be the receiver. The speaker who will be the transmitter will
‘send’ the messages through the language to the receiver. The receiver then receives
the messages. The process is complete because the messages reach the destination on
the receiver. Moreover, Himstreet and Baty (1984) provide the theory of human
communication in which the information source is the human mind, the transmitter is
voice, or whatever means humans have at their disposal to use in transmitting and the
receiver and the final destination are the sensory organs, such as ears, skin, nose and
eyes, along with the mind of the recipient of the messages.
In this study, which is related to the advertising, communication is
synonymous with information (Dainton & Zelley, 2011). The communication process
occurs between the advertisers and the consumers who receive the messages. The
messages transferred are in the non-verbal forms which turn to be the written
advertisements.
8. Advertisement
This section describes the theories related to the advertisement, namely the
definition of advertisement, the functions of advertisement and the types of
advertisement. Besides, since the aims of this study are to analyze and describe the
are provided. Also, the researcher provides Coca-cola and Pepsi advertising strategies
since this study uses Coca-cola and Pepsi as the objects of the study.
a. Definition of Advertisement
Advertisement is “an organization of text that provides information about a
product or service along with an anchorage of image that suggests some cohesion or
logical linkage leading to some relevance or meaningful interpretation to the target
consumers” (Dattamajumdar, 2006: 222). It implies that advertisement is a form of
text to give information about the products or services to the consumers. On the other
hand, advertising means a form of communication used to persuade an audience
(viewers, readers or listeners) to take some action with respect to products, ideas, or
services (Agustrijanto, 2002, as cited in Anggraeni, 2011). Agusrijanto states that the
discourse in the advertisement is to persuade. Therefore, the advertisers intend to
persuade a certain category of people to buy a given product or service (Dimbley &
Burton, 1985).
In the advertising, communication creates a persuasive connection with people
(Dimblely & Burton, 1985). The persuasive activity is also described as the
promotions which are the “activities that communicate the product or service and
its merits to the target customers and persuade them to buy” (Kotler & Armstrong,
2001: 98, as cited in Chikorva, 2011). The messages delivered in the advertisements
are commonly defined as paid communication from an identified sponsor using the
mass media to persuade the audiences (Rodgers & Thorson, 2012: 4). However, the
According to Valor (2005), “the discourse of advertising is characterized by two main
communicative elements: information and persuasion” (p. 43). Furthermore, Valor
(2005: 44) states that most of the studies related to the advertising have shown that
persuasion is the main purpose in advertising, whereas information is the secondary
purpose in advertising.
The communication in the advertising can be broken down into two branches,
namely verbal and non-verbal communication (Lapsanska, 2006: 19). In real life,
verbal communication is commonly used in the advertising, in which the advertisers
use the words. It does not employ oral or spoken language to persuade the costumers
to buy the products. On the other hand, non-verbal communication can be expressed
“through any sensory channel” (Lapsanska, 2006: 19). In other words, it can be
expressed in any media. In conclusion, non-verbal communication can be wordless
communication.
b. Functions of Advertisement
Rodgers and Thorson (2012: 5) propose four functions of advertisements.
First is brand building, which means creating concepts and beliefs about brands in the
minds of consumers. Second is lead generation, meaning the advertising message has
attracted people who are in the market for purchase. Third is driving purchase,
meaning there is a direct relationship between encountering the advertising messages
and buying the advertised brand. Fourth is changing life behaviors, meaning the
advertising messages lead directly to the behaviors, for instance, losing weight or
c. Types of Advertisement
Cook (2001, as cited in Valor, 2005: 44) categorizes advertisements according
to various criteria. First, Cook categorizes advertisement by its medium, for instance,
newspaper, magazine, radio, television and internet. Second, it is categorized by
product or service, for instance, luxuries versus household necessities and product ads
versus non-product ads. Third, it is categorized by technique, for instance, the
hard-sell advertisement, which makes a direct appeal to the prospective buyer, and the
soft-sell ad, which works through indirectness and implication. Fourth, it is categorized by
consumer, which is considered the most important factor for an advertisement to be
successful.
d. Linguistic Features in Advertisements
Regarding the linguistic features, the language in advertisements often relies
on creative exploitation of language within predictable linguistic patterns and
techniques (Leech, 1966, as cited in El-daly, 2011). According to Leech (1966, as
cited in El-daly, 2011) it is one of the advertisers’ strategies to attract and sustain the
reader's attention in order to make the advertisement memorable and to prompt the
readers to do appropriate action. Moreover, Linghong (2006) proposes several lexical
features in the English advertisements, such as the use of monosyllabic verbs (be,
print, fit), the use of weasel words, “words used to evade or retreat from a direct or
forthright statement or position” (Linghong, 2006: 73), the use of favorable words,
of personal pronouns, the use of compounds, the use of coinage or new words, the use
of anagrammatic spellings and the use of borrowed words.
e. Coca-cola and Pepsi Advertising Strategies
Coca-cola and Pepsi have different strategies to advertise their products. They
use a slogan, a jingle and anything that can be used to promote the products. For
instance, Pepsi attempted to target more costumers with the campaign “Pepsi
Generation” aimed to target the young customers for the marketing, whereas
Coca-cola used Tab, a diet soda, to focus on the female market (Michman & Mazze, 1998:
233). Further, Michman & Mazze (1998: 235) state that Coca-cola’s promotional
theme “the light refreshment” worked wonders (Michman & Mazze, 1998: 232). In
1942, Pepsi created and used a jingle concept to advertise the products. The jingle
emphasized a larger size bottle:
Pepsi-Cola hits the spot. Twelve full ounces, that’s a lot. Twice as much, for a nickel, too. Pepsi-Cola is the drink for you.
The jingle was translated into 55 different languages, and in 1949, Life
magazine called it immortal (Michman & Mazze, 1998: 237).
B. Theoretical Framework
There are two research problems in this study, namely the word formation
types used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements and the most frequently word
description, the researcher employs the theories from Aronoff and Fudeman (2011),
Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004), Katamba (1993) and O’Grady and de Guzman
(2011) about the morphological phenomena focusing on word formation processes to
solve the two research problems.
To solve the first research problem, the theories that will be used are word
formation types which are compiled from the studies by Aronoff and Fudeman
(2011), Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004), Katamba (1993) and O’Grady and de
Guzman (2011). There are eleven word formation types, namely borrowing,
cliticization, coinage, acronyms, intialism, blending, clipping, back-formation,
conversion, derivation and inflection. Based on the provided theories, the researcher
attempts to analyze the word formations used in the Coca-cola and Pepsi
advertisements.
To solve the second research problem, the most frequently word formation
used, the researcher uses the theories of word formation from the studies by Aronoff
and Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004), Katamba (1993) and O’Grady
and de Guzman (2011). The researcher attempts to classify the word formations used
in the Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements into 11 categories, namely borrowing,
cliticization, coinage, acronyms, initalism, blending, clipping, back-formation,
conversion, derivation and inflection. Afterwards, the researcher will identify which
32
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter consists of seven subtopics. The first subtopic is the research
method implemented to conduct the research. The second subtopic is the research
setting that refers to the place and time in which the research was conducted. The
third presents the sources of data. The fourth is the instruments used to collect the
data. The fifth is the techniques used to gather the data. The sixth is the data analysis.
The last part of this chapter is the procedures of the research.
A. Research Method
The research was qualitative research since it focused on understanding social
phenomena from the perspective of the human participants in the study (Ary, Jacobs
& Razavieh, 2002). The intended social phenomenon was the soft drink
advertisements that widely exist in society. The soft drink advertisements were
analyzed linguistically to understand the word formation used in the advertisements.
The research was also considered content analysis. According to Fraenkel and
Wallen (2008), content analysis is “a technique that enables researchers to study
human behavior in an indirect way through an analysis of their communications” (p.
472). Here, the focus of the content analysis is indirect research. The researcher
therefore took the data by analyzing and interpreting the recorded materials (Ary,
materials can be taken from public records, textbooks, letters, films, tapes, diaries,
themes, reports and so on. In short, the materials used in a content analysis represent
the forms of human communication (Leedy & Omrod, 2005: 142). Regarding this
study, the researcher observed the public records that were Coca-cola and Pepsi
advertisements published in the United States from 1950 until 2012.
B. Research Setting
The researcher conducted the research from December 2012 until April 2013.
The research was conducted in Yogyakarta through a library study and indirect
research to collect the data. However, the research setting did not refer to the setting
of the participants since it referred to the researcher’s domicile in conducting the
research.
C. Research Sources of Data
The sources of the data were Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements that had
been collected from various online sources through the search engine Google. The
researcher chose Coca-cola and Pepsi advertisements as the research sources of data
since the two soft drink brands are widely recognized across nations. Moreover,
Coca-cola and Pepsi are the companies who have been dominating the soft drink
industry and cola market (Michman & Mazze, 1998). Since the volumes of the
relevant data were abundant, the researcher needed the samplings of the data. It is
situation of texts, the researcher needs a sampling plan to ensure that the textual units
sampled do not bias the answers to the research question” (Krippendorff, 2004: 113).
Thus, the researcher used the stratified samples. According to Krippendorff (2004:
113), “stratified samples represent all strata either in equal numbers”. It implied that
the samples taken were stratified according to a certain specific definition, for
instance, the samples may be stratified by geographic area of publication or by
frequency of publication (Krippendorff, 2004: 113). Since the advertisements were
too large to be analyzed as a whole, the researcher stratified the advertisements based
on the geographic area of publication and the years of publication. The geographic
area would be the United States of America since it is the country where Coca-cola
and Pepsi were first produced. Besides, the language of the advertisements would be
analyzed linguistically in English. The years of publication were 1950 until 2012.
Further, since the range of the years was quite big, the researcher randomly selected
one advertisement from each year. The advertisements were taken from various
online sources through the search engine Google.
D. Research Instruments
There were two instruments used in this study. The first instrument was
human instrument as stated by Merriam (2002: 4) that “the researcher is the primary
instrument for data collection and data analysis.” It implied that human instrument
was the researcher who became the key person to observe the phenomena of the study
After deciding the objectives, the researcher collected the data, classified the data and
analyzed the data based on the theories.
The second instruments were the observation forms, which are depicted in
Table 3.1 and Table 3.2. The observation forms were used for observing the
phenomena on word formation and classifying the data. Table 3.1 was used for
classifying the word formation types occurring in the Coca-cola and Pepsi
advertisements. Table 3.1 was used for answering first research problem regarding
the word formation types used in the data. There are 11 types of word formation used
for categorizing the data. The eleven types of word formation are based on the
theories from Aronoff and Fudeman (2011), Bauer (1983), Campbell (2004),
Katamba (1993) and O’Grady and de Guzman (2011). Each of word formation type is
given a code, for instance, borrowing is given a code BO. The rest of the codes can be
found below Table 3.1.
Table 3.1 Table of Word Formation Types