7 CHAPTER II
RESEARCH OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical Background 2.1.1 Linguistics
Linguistics is the scientific study of human’s language. The primary object is
human language signifying that language is human specific and human species. It is
only human that uses language as a means of communication. Humans use language
to do communicate and interact with others. Linguistics does not study every form of
human’s language. It focused on analyzing human’s verbal language. It focused on
analyzing human’s verbal language; the language that consists of words. Hudson (in
Umar and Napitupulu 1994 : 1) says : “Linguistik adalah disiplin yang mempelajari
struktur bahasa tanpa mengkaji konteks sosisal tempat struktur itu dipelajari atau
digunakan”. (Linguitics is a scientific discipline about language structure without
examine the social context where the structure is learned or used).
According to Gleason and Ratner (1998 : 7) say that “linguistics is the study
of language in its various aspects. The language some people use as a means of
healing or bringing danger to people, which is associated to particular faiths, as
mentioned before can be also then part of linguistics claims”. However, the study of
how people read other’s postures or how they use their gestures as a language to
communicate to one another is not normally studied as linguistics. In the early
history of its introduction as a social science, linguistics was regarded as a subfield
of semiotics, which is the science of signs. As a signs language may be analyzed in
8 Today, to the advance study on language, linguistics is usually perceived as
an independent field. Language and its social setting should be studied as a
significant linguistics field. Language reflects society; it also serves to pass on social
structure, for learning a language is central feature of being socialized. Language and
society may not be purely human but they are such fundamental human phenomena
that they cry out for better understanding. Language use also varies according to the
situation, whether it is public or private, formal or informal, who is being addressed,
and who might be able to overhear.
2.1.2 Sociolinguistics
The topic about language choice is discussed in sociolinguistics extensively.
Sociolinguistics refers to a study of the relationship between language and society.
The research on choice is traditionally seen as something belonging to sociology,
while study of research language belongs to linguistics. So, this research of language
choice in Resimen Mahasiswa of University of Sumatera Utara belongs both of
sociology and linguistics or sociolinguistics.
Sociolinguistics is a branch of linguistics that takes language as an object
study. Sociolinguistics was used more to refer to the study of language in relation to
society, sociolinguistics itself focus of study is language. Sociolinguistics is
concerned with investigating the relationship between language and society with the
goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how language
function and language use through communication.
In order words, in sociolinguistics we study language and society in order to
9 (1986) says that “sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationship
between language and society with the goal of a better understanding of the structure
of language and how language functions and language use in communication”.
Peter Mathew (1997) sociolinguistics is any study of language in relation to
society. Bernard Spolsky (1998), sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation
between language and society, between the uses of language and social structures in
which the users of language live.
Sylvia Chalker and Edmund Weiner (1998), sociolinguistics is the study of
language in relation to social factors. Then, Fishman (in Chaer and Agustina, 1995 :
4) says that sociolinguistics as the study of characteristics of language varieties, the
characteristics of their function, and the characteristics of their speaker as these
constantly interact, change and change one another within a speech community.
Gumperz (1971 : 23) has observed that sociolinguistics is an attempt to find
relationship between social structure and linguistics structure to observe any changes
that occur. Chambers (2002 : 3) is even more direct : “sociolinguistics is the study of
the social uses of language, and the most productive studies in the four decades of
sociolinguistics research have emanated from determining the social valuation of
linguistics variant”. Sociolinguistics could be a critical field of study. The goal of
sociolinguistics study of such a community is to relate the significant language
varieties and language use to significant social groups and situations. Because it is
deeply concerned with language in society, sociolinguistics has form its start been
equally involved in social matters. Based on these theory standpoint, human
competence in language should be accountable from the perspective of natural
10 Some early linguistics researches observed that our language is potent
enough to influence the way we behave. According to this view, language said to be
able to influence or determine the behaviors of the users. But sociolinguistics is more
to a different direction: the social environment is believed to influence that language
uses. The point is, sociolinguistics is the study, which has a relationship between
language and social factors in a speech community.
2.2 Language Use
Language use symbolically represents fundamental dimensions of social
behavior and human interaction. People use language in patterned ways. People use
more formal ways of speaking when talking to someone important. The notion is
simple, but the ways in which language reflects behavior can often be complex and
subtle. Furthermore, the relationship between language and society affects a wide
range of encounters--from broadly based international relations to narrowly defined
interpersonal relationships. A slightly different concern with language and society
focuses more closely on the effect of particular kinds of social situations on language
structure.
Another approach to language and society focuses on the situations and uses
of language as an activity in its own right. The study of language in its social context
tells us quite a bit about how we organize our social relationships within a particular
community. It is also possible to examine how people manage their language in
relation to their cultural backgrounds and their goals of interaction. Sociolinguists
might investigate questions such as how mixed-gender conversations differ from
single-gender conversations, how differential power relations manifest themselves in
11 should be used, or how language change occurs and spreads to communities. To
answer these questions related to language as social activity, sociolinguists often use
ethnographic methods. That is, they attempt to gain an understanding of the values
and viewpoints of a community in order to explain the behaviors and attitudes of its
members.
2.3 Language Choice
Language choice depends on some factors such as participants, setting, topic,
and so on (Sumarsono and Paina 2002: 199). Evan Tripp (1972) in Faturrohman
(2009) identified four main factors in language choice, they are setting (time and
place) and situation, participants in the interaction, topic of the conversation, and
interaction functions. Brown Ford (1961), Sibayan (1984), and Rubin (1972) have
done a research about it, and they conclude that in some reasons, they are intimacy
level, social statue, situation (formal or informal), and location.
Fishman’s (1964: 1972a) concept of domains language choice behavior was a
major breakthrough in the sociolinguistics study of language choice behavior. He
describes language choice behavior in stable bilingual setting in terms of the domain
allocation of languages (a varieties). Domains are linked to particular linguistic
varieties where they. As compared to social situations, are abstractions from the
intersection between specific role relationships (statuses), specific settings (locales)
and specific topics.
In some cases, language choice behavior may be motivated by a particular
social processes. More recently Scotton (1980, 1983) has proposed another different
model to explain language choice behavior. By what she has called a ‘social process’
model, one pattern of linguistic behavior is linked with another pattern of behavior
12 conversational exchange. Scotton claims further that language choices are not a
function of situation but rather the function of negotiation, and sees speaking as ‘a
rational process involving decisions’ (Scotton, 1983: 115).
According to Scotton, speakers’ communicative competence will include
their recognition of code choices as either unmarked or marked in reference to the
norms of their speech community. She adds that community norms ‘designate
specific linguistics choice as the unmarked realization of a specific set of rights and
obligations holding between a speaker and addressee’ (Scotton 1983: 115).
In all multilingual communities speakers switch among languages or varieties
as monolinguals switch among styles. Language choice is not arbitrary and not all
speech communities are organized in the same way (Romaine 1994: 36). Often this
kind of social meaning can only be interpreted by the understanding of what
relationship exists between the choices of the particular code to some factors other
than linguistic factors, example social as well as situational factors.
In fact, sociolinguistic literature has documented several studies which have
made use of situational dimensions, social networks, role relations and domains of
language behavior to describe the patterns of language choice behavior in various
kinds of bilingual and multilingual communities. The choice of styles or language or
even the use of appropriate address and kinship terms may indicate the type of social
relationship held between interlocutors.
2.4 Speech Community
Every person comes from a community, that they already familiar with their
characteristics about the way they talk in a single language. The members must be
share knowledge and attitude towards the language use patterns of others as well as
13 defines speech community as “all the people who speak a single language and so
share notions of what is same or different in phonology or grammar, this would
include any group of people, wherever they might be, and however remote might be
the possibility of their ever wanting or being able to communicate with each other,
all using the same language. The whole set of people who communicate with each
other, either directly or indirectly, via the common language.
The second quote by Leonard Bloomfield (1933 : 42) explain that the
creation of communication within the community is added, if two communities both
spoke the same language but had no contact with each other at all, they would count
as different speech communities. Here is the quoted: A speech community is a group
of people who interact by mean of speech. Carol M. Eastman (1983) the term speech
community refers to the unit analysis of a language in its context, that is : The speech
community is the unit of analysis of language in a culture or in society. A speech
community is a set of individuals who share the knowledge of what is the
appropriate conduct and interpretation of speech. These individuals also share the
understanding of at least one language, that they may communicate with each other
(Jendra : 30).
In a speech community, for sure there is a speech acts. Chaer and Agustina
(1954 : 46) that define speech acts as :
“Terjadinya atau berlangsungnya suatu interaksi linguistic dalam suatu bentuk
ujaran atau lebih yang melibatkan dua pihak, yaitu penutur dan lawan tutur, dengan
suatu pokok tuturan, didalam waktu, tempat dan situasi tertentu.” (A linguistics
interaction in one or more speech form, involving two, speaker and listener, with a
14 2.4.1 Speaking
Hymes (1974) uses the word speaking as an acronym for the various factors
he deems to be relevant. We will now consider these factors one by one.
1. The setting (S) of speech are important. Setting refers to the time, place,
occasions, or natural situation that can influence the people in choosing the
code. Within a particular setting, of course, participants are free to change
scenes, as they change the level of formality or as they change the kind of
activity in which they are involved.
2. Participants (P) include various combinations of speakers-listener. A two
person conversation involves a speaker and listener whose roles a change.
This is consist of people who involved in the communication found in the
setting.
3. Ends (E) refers to the conventionally recognized and expected outcomes of
an exchange as well as to the personal goals that participants seek to
accomplish on a particular occasions. This term is a part of the goals or
proposes that speaker wishes to reach. With each go different kinds of
language in different situation also and things talked about. Thus, for a
different ends, speaker of language often should choose the different word.
4. Act Sequence (A) refers to the other of a speech, a narrative, conversation, or
a talking. This is one aspects of speaking in which linguistics have long
shown an interest, particularly those who study discourse and conversation.
The sequence in speaking is then considered to be also an important factor to
15 5. Key (K) the fifth term, refers to the one, manner, feeling, spirit of the
message wished to be captured within the conversation. The key may also be
marked nonverbally by certain kinds of behavior, posture, gesture, or even
deportment. It is also referred to the spirit captured in the voice or manner of
a speaker. The spirit or the feeling may be sincere, modest, or low.
6. Instrumentalities (I) refers to the choice of channel. It is also referred to the
register and forms of the speech. The forms that might be under consideration
are whether it will be delivered in a more formal way or a casual friendly
one. Formal, written, legal language is one instrumentality.
7. Norm of Interaction and Interpretation (N) refers to the specific behaviors
and properties that attach to speaking and also to how these may be viewed
by someone who does not share them. However, these norms may vary from
social group to social group. For example, allowance for an interruption,
using gestures freely, eye contact, distance, etc.
8. Genre (G) the final term to clearly to the types of utterances. We can ask
someone to stop ‘sermonizing’; that is, we can recognize a genre of sermons
when an instance of it, or something closely resembling an instance, occurs
outside its usual setting. In a conversation we might not find the factors to be
active all together.
What Hymes offer us in his speaking formula is a very necessary reminder
that talk is a complex activity. When speaking does go wrong, as it sometimes does,
that going wrong is often clearly describable in terms of some neglect of one or more
16 2.5 Language Attitude
Language attitude are opinions, ideas, feelings, behaviors, and prejudices that
speakers have with respect to a language. Language conveys attitude. Attitude is a
concept that is presented like whether or not a person on something. Attitude may
change partially a result of the experience. When studying language attitude, the
concept of motives is important. Moreover, motivation derived from a sense of
academic or communicative success is more likely to motivate one to speak the
language.
Language in a community may be different from other communities how
language use can be influenced according to the different social characteristics. In
summary, the attitude of speaking is the way someone treats language influenced by
knowledge and views on the language and the environment in which it interacts with
specific language.
In accordance with statement above, we can determine language attitude on
specific groups of people by looking at emerging or growing indications that surface
in daily life associated with the use of language. If the indications lead to more
positive attitudes in general it can be said that the society has positive language
attitude, and vice versa. Shortly, if the society treats a language properly,
appropriately, and in accordance with the context or situation where and when they
still have a positive attitude towards the language.
Positive environment for the growth and development of the good and correct
language in accordance with the context is also indispensable in fostering positive
17 interaction with the environment. Someone who lives in the neighborhood who did
not discipline in the language most likely will go well do the same, and vice versa.
Some language attitude studies are strictly limited to attitudes toward the
language itself. Language attitudes show whether someone happy or not to speak or
to use a language. Therefore, the attitude of the language can be grouped into two,
namely a positive attitude and negative attitude. According to Chaer (1995: 200)
language attitude is a relatively long-term systems of belief or cognition, partly about
language, and partly about the object of language which give tendency to someone to
react and some certain pleases ways. The attitude is usually be positive (if judged as
good or preferred) or otherwise be negative (if judged as not good or dislike).
2.6 Resimen Mahasiswa (MENWA)
Resimen Mahasiswa (abbreviated MENWA) is one of the civilan force trained
and prepared to defend the homeland as a manifestation of the SISHANKAMRATA
(People’s Defense and Security System Universe). MENWA also serves as a forum
for student participation in the effort to defend the State, the distribution of potential
students and the development of values, attitudes, behaviors, skills and independence
through exercise patterns of discipline and skill, as the embodiment of the
implementation of the rights and obligations of every citizen of the Republic of
Indonesia in national defense and as the tradition of fighting spirit and selfless
dedication of generations of Student Corps. MENWA as Student Activity Unit level
College is a place of creativity development of students who need to constantly
18 MENWA is national defense reserve component training that given military
science such as the use of weapons, combat tactics, survival, skydiving, military
martial, military training itself, disguises, navigation and so on. MENWA is also part
of the academic community college that played a role in building the public mindset
in terms of the importance of awareness of the love of the homeland and defending
the country.
MENWA was given the authority and responsibility that is different from the
other organization and it is directly under of their rectorate itself. In the University of
Sumatera Utara is a founding pioneer organization level College Resimen
Mahasiswa of Sumatra Utara. It began in February 1976 when the Pusat Cadangan
Nasional (PUSCADNAS) Dephankam RI sends a letter to USU, which it is asking for
USU delegate some of his students to follow the leadership of the Resistance
Education Cadre Course Public Safety (SUSKAPIN WANKAMRA). Exactly one year
after the study, exactly 12 February 1977 inaugurated one of the students who enroll
as a commandant of University of Sumatera Utara. The inauguration date which was
adopted as the date of birth of Resimen Mahasiswa of University of Sumatera Utara.
Resimen Mahasiswa of University of Sumatera Utara members which is
going to be observed by the writer related to the title of this analysis. The office is
located in Jl. Universitas, no.24. This group is full of the people who want learn
about the leadership, and the language attitude. It is an organization for leadership
and awareness of language attitude in USU. The members of MENWA come from
every faculties or even departments in USU such as Medical Faculty, Law Faculty,
19 Sciences, Engineering Faculty, Economics Faculty, Social and Political Sciences and
Cultural Studies Faculty.
In Resimen Mahasiswa, people generally assume that the Resimen
Mahasiswa is a military organization, but in the fact Resimen Mahasiswa it just a
student organization learn about the leadership, language attitudes, and improve the
skills. As the other student organizations, although in MENWA sometimes also used
as an army or national reserve. On Wednesday and Saturday are the days which all
members of MENWA of University of Sumatera Utara have the obligatory activity in
the Resimen Mahasiswa of University of Sumatera Utara. First, all the members
going to do the ceremony, in MENWA it is namely “APEL” it is an activity which is
always do in MENWA. Next, continue with others activity, such as: running,
warming, cooling, and the others activity, in MENWA namely “Pembinaan Fisik”
(BINSIK) (Physical Development) then continue with the agenda which is prepared
before.
In Resimen Mahasiswa of University of Sumatera Utara there are several
stages to become a member of Resimen Mahasiswa. The first begin from a selection.
Selection intends to become a junior member in MENWA, at this stage they have not
officially said to be an official member of Resimen Mahasiswa of University of
Sumatera Utara. Therefore, they must follow “PRADIKSAR” to be considered
formally as members of the Resimen Mahasiswa of University of Sumatera Utara
after that they must pass the (Basic Training) in MENWA, namely “PENDIDIKAN
DASAR” (DIKSAR) to be a members of the Resimen Mahasiswa Indonesia.
This is done in order to carry out the task and function within their Panca
20 national reserve and part of a well-trained people who are ready to participate in
preserving the sovereignty of the Republic of Indonesia. The means of Panca
Dharma Satya is the promise of Indonesian students as a members of MENWA, are:
• We are the students of the citizen, Republic of the Indonesia based on the
Pancasila.
• We are students who are aware of the responsibility and honor of the country
and do not know the defense gave up.
• We are the young generation of Indonesia who have knight spirit and the fear
of God Almighty and defend honesty, truth, and justice.
• We are students who uphold the good name and the honor of Garba Scientific
and be aware of the future of the Nation.
• We are students who uphold discipline and unseen, believe with yourself and
put national interests above personal or group interest.
In addition of Panca Dharma Satya, MENWA motto is “Widya Castrena
Dharma Siddha” derived from Sanskrit which is means that “Completion
Obligations with Science and Science soldiering” (Perpaduan Ilmu Pengetahuan
dan Ilmu Olah Keprajuritan). Intended by science is all sorts of scientific branches
acquired while a student. It is used to pursue career path, not forgetting the main
purpose of doing the community service. While the military science means that is
concerned with life heroism, the knightly and leadership, not just expertise in
