LEARNING THEORIES AND
PROCEDURES
A. Learning Theories and
Application
Learning is always defined as a change of behavior as a result of experiences.
The problem faced by teachers is how to make students want to learn. Teachers have the
responsibilities of determining learning objective, TL procedures, classroom management, and
helping students to learn.
All teachers have views and theories of learning.
By observing the teacher teaching, we can understand the basic assumption of what TL
For example, a teacher who is in a complete
control on all of the student’s activities is unaware that she is practicing her theory in a different way than the other teacher who develops a situation in which students are allowed to decide their own
way of learning.
One of the objectives of teacher education is to help prospective teachers understand the
relationship between theories and practice..
Later research found that repetition was not the best learning strategy to arrive at a higher level. Therefore, teachers began to change their way of teaching.
The following are a short look at some of the
theories of learning:
a. Contemporary behaviorist (or so called Stimulus-Response theory):
It sees factors in the environment stimuli and results of behavior in the form of responses.
Behavior is controlled by external reward or reinforcement.
A teacher who believes this behavioral theory
Examples:
A student who is a trouble maker has learned to be one because his friends agree to and reinforce his behavior.
A student who is a loner has learned that his
environment does not reinforce him to socialize with his friends.
Behavior can be analyzed by studying the
development of reinforcement, a method which can change behavior.
The teacher is responsible for making the
b. Cognitive psychologists, on the other hand,
focuses on the students as active participants in the TL process.
A teachers who believes in this theory says that her class will be effective if she knows what
knowledge the students already have and what they are thinking during the lesson.
To be specific, cognitive approach tries to
3. Humanistic psychologists view that feeling is as important as behavior or thought.
They think that behavior is the development of self-actualization in the area that individuals choose themselves.
As we know, there is no one learning theory which
is the best; each has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Why?
a. No theory of behavioristic, cognitive, and
humanistic fits the individual differences of the students.
b. Not all of educational practices are based on one particular theory. Attempts have been made to integrate cognitive and humanistic methods or cognitive and behavioral methods.
1. Thorndike: The Law of Effect
Thorndike’s theory is known as Connectionism,
because he thinks that learning is a process of recalling, forming, and S-R association.
He developed his theory by using a cat which he put in a puzzle box with a door opening. When the animal pulls a rope which is hanging in the cage, the door will be open and the cat gets the reward, i.e., the food.
Thorndike summed up that learning is the
The important factor which affects learning is the
reward or a feeling of satisfaction out of an event.
Punishment is not important since it weakens the bond and does not influence the effect.
Law of Exercise is the second learning principle, which says that the bond between S and R ill be strengthened with the R more frequently exercised towards the S.
The bond between S and R will become weak when the exercise is stopped or when the neural bond is not present.
Suggestions for teachers:
Teachers should know before hand what to teach, what response to expect, and when to give a
reward or reinforcement.
The S-R bond is apparent in Mathematics: more frequent exercises on multiplication will strengthen the response. In the same way, more frequent
reading activity and use of words will make the R stronger.
2. Ivan Pavlov:
Classical Conditioning
In his experiment with a dog, Pavlov identifies that both food and saliva are the unconditioned
stimulus or the natural stimulus which are able to produce a certain response.
Conditioned stimulus is one that is unable to produce a certain response without a particular
conditioning process. For example, a bell ring after it is conditioned can produce a certain response.
A conditioned response, in other words, is one that is produced by a conditioned stimulus.
In this experiment there are two important things:
a. A conditioned stimulus must be followed by an unconditional stimulus immediately;
b. This process must be repeated many times (32 times) until the conditioned response is formed. For example, after the dog has been fed together with a bell ring 32 times, when the animal hears a single bell ring, it will produce saliva.
c. When a repeated conditioned response is not
3. J.B. Watson:
Conditioning Reflect
Watson used Pavlov’s experiment as a basis for his learning theory.
He believed that learning is a process of conditioning the reflect (response) through a change of one
stimulus to another.
Watson asserts that human beings are born with reflects, emotional reaction, fears, love, and anger. All behaviors are developed by way of conditioning. For example, a child will not feel afraid of a mouse
Many behaviors are learned by way of classical conditioning.
For example, students will learn a negative attitude when the teacher gets angry at their inability to solve a difficult math problem.
Thus, experiences of being asked about difficult matters will produce disappointment.
Fears about the English lesson probably is the result of fears of another difficult lesson such as Math:
4. B.F. Skinner:
Operant Conditioning
Skinner views reward or reinforcement as the most important factor in the learning process: we tend to learn a response when it is followed by
reinforcement.
Skinner chose the term reinforcement than
reward, because reward may be interpreted as a subjective behavior related to happiness, whereas
reinforcement is a neutral term.
Skinner asserts that there is another behavior that he called it an operant behavior, because such a behavior takes place in any unconditioned stimuli or circumstances, like food for example.
Skinner’s finding concerns about the relationship
between behavior and consequences. For example, if an individual’s behavior is followed immediately by a pleasing consequence, the individual will use the same behavior again, as often as possible.
The pleasant consequences will make the behavior stronger, while the unpleasant consequences will make the behavior weaker.
Thus, the pleasant consequences will become more in frequency, and otherwise.
o Respondent conditioning is a behavior which
results from the presence of a stimulus, like a bell in Pavlov’s experiment.
o Operant conditioning is a behavior which is made by the organism itself: an operant is not always preceded by an outside stimulus.
Operant conditioning, although it is closely related with Thorndike’s theory, is different from
Thorndike’s explanation.
In Thorndike’s view, the presence of a reward will strengthen the bond between the S and the R, while in Skinner’s theory it is similar responses that will be strengthened, not the relationship between the S and the R.
In real teaching practices, the teacher has an
important role, that is, to improve the skill in giving reinforcement, to return and discuss
frequently the students’ work after their work has been corrected, and to praise the desired
Group Work
Think of how Operant Conditioning is used in the
classroom!
5. Procedures for Developing
Behavior
In using reinforcement to strengthened behavior, there are two important methods: shaping and modeling.
1. Shaping or successive approximation is a model to teach complex behaviors by reinforcing responses and lead subjects to a final response.
For example, when a teacher wants to lead students for successful learning, she will reinforce the steps to success.
Frazier (1989) suggests using shaping to improve learning behavior in five steps:
1. Coming to the classroom in time.
2. Participating actively in learning activities. 3. Showing good results.
4. Doing homework.
5. Improving achievements.
2. Modeling: an individual learns by observing another person’s behavior as a model.
Language (style), dresses, music, etc. can become a model.
We learn because we are reinforced to do it. Most students have first learning experience by direct imitation.
Modeling may happen without direct reinforcement.
Modeling can be used to teach both academic and motor skills.
The following are procedures to eliminate
unfavorable classroom behaviors:
a. Reinforcing competing behaviors: the teacher
ignores unwanted behaviors but praises students who show willingness to learn. In a short time such a social reinforcement can reduce unwanted classroom behaviors.
b. Extinction: a process whereby the operant does not receive reinforcement anymore. Question:
What will you do to a student who always answers teacher’s questions without thinking?
c. Satiation: a procedure which encourages students to do something over and over again until they
become exhausted. A student who is found smoking is forced to finish a pack of cigarettes.
d. Changing the environment which affects behaviors. What will you do if there is a continuous loud noise outside of the classroom?
Steps to change behaviors:
1. Make an operational statement on a behavior which can be changed. Example: “I will stay on my seat unless I am permitted to leave.” Or, “I will raise up my hand and wait till I am called to speak.”
3. Arrange learning situation or treatment in order that the desired behavior may take place. Example, the teacher sticks rules of conduct on the wall and explain them to class so that students know very well what their teacher wants.
B. Cognitive Theory
The behavioral theory can only answer part of a question about learning. Learning is not only a matter of giving stimuli and rewards.
Cognitive theorists say that learning is a result of knowing about the world by way of thinking.
Learning involves beliefs, hopes, and feelings.
Both behavioral and cognitive theories recognize the importance of reinforcement but their
reasoning is different: for the behaviorists,
The feedback gives information about what will
probably be happening if the behavior is repeated. Thus, reinforcement for the students is to reduce uncertainty in achieving knowledge.
Cognitivists view learning as something active: looking for information to solve a problem,
rearranging and organizing what they already know to get a new knowledge.
Implications of Cognitive theory in teaching and learning:
1. Teaching Strategies
b. Identify what is important, difficult, and uncommon.
c. Emphasize the importance of the new information as stated in the learning objectives.
d. Help the students to recall the information already learned.
2. Strategies to help students to recall:
Lindsay and Norman (1987): memorizing needs efforts; the materials to be memorized should be
relevant to other things; organizing the memory. The materials can be broken into small chunks and then reassembled in a meaningful way.
Using mnemonics:
b. Chain-type Mnemonics: relating or linking the first item to the second, the second to the third, the third to the fourth, etc. Example: How do you memorize the colors of a rainbow?
c. Keyword Method: decide on which word is the most important in a statement. Example: What is language? It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbol used for communication in a particular group of people.
1. Bruner: Discovery Learning
Still in the cognitive theory, Bruner (1966) raised the Discovery Learning theory.
Bruner thinks that the teacher should create a situation where students can learn by themselves rather than giving a package of information.
He says that students should take part in the process of knowledge-getting. Knowing is a process, not a product.
Students should be encouraged to experience and
Some additional suggestions:
a. Give a temporary guess or hypotheses through questions. Example: What will happen if...?
b. Use a variety of media and games.
c. Encourage students to satisfy their curiosity in the subject matter.
2. Ausubel: Reception Learning
Expository Teaching.
Ausubel (1968) criticizes the discovery learning. He said students do not always know what is
important or relevant but need external motivation in doing cognitive assignments.
What is important is what students have known. He raised an alternative model called reception learning.
The teacher sets learning situation, selects materials,
and delivers the materials in an organized way.
Although the teacher’s role is different in the
discovery learning and the receptive learning, these two approaches have three things in common:
a. Both emphasize students’ active participation.
b. Both need previous knowledge to be linked with the new one.
Expository teaching has 3 principle steps of delivery:
1st: Presentation of Advance Organizer.
2nd: Presentation of Learning Task or Material.
C. Humanistic Theory
Although it is clear that learning is influenced by environment (stimulus) and cognitive factor
(thinking and doing), it is also apparent that
learning is affected by the person and his feelings. Humanistic theorists indicate that:
1. Individual’s behavior is determined by his view of the world;
2. Individuals are not only the product of environment as the behaviorists say, but of the internal
The humanistic view of learning centers on the
students---student-centered.
The following are proponents of humanistic theory
1. Arthur Combs et.al. (1974)
A person’s view of the world is determined by his feelings, perception, belief, and objective.
In order to change a person’s behavior, we have to change the individual’s perception.
2. Maslow (1968)
He thinks that there is a hierarchy of human
3. Carl Rogers (1969, 1983)
He says that education should be human, personal, and meaningful.
The principles of human learning: 1. The desire to learn.
2. Significant learning –relevant to needs. 3. Learning without threat.
Implication of Humanistic teaching and learning: a. person-centered education
b. Combination of affective experiences and cognitive learning.
