CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Reading Comprehension 1. The Nature of Reading
As our knowledge of the reading process has evolved, definitions of
reading have become more complex. Although “getting meaning from print”
is one way to define reading, such simplified definitions do not adequately
present the complexity of the process, nor do they reflect the interaction of
factor which enter into the reading act.
According to Nunan (1991:70) and Leu and Kinzer (1987: 9) reading is a
dynamic process in which the text elements interact with other factors outside
the text, through developmental, interactive, and global process involving
learned skills. The process specifically incorporates an individual’s linguistic
knowledge. It can be both positively and negatively influenced by non
linguistic internal and external variables of factors. It means that reading is
regarded as complex activity that involves various activities, such as knowing
each symbol and analyzing the words into a meaning. Reading comprehension
needs an active thinking process in mind to comprehend and understand what
has been read.
From the definition above, it can be concluded that reading is the process
of understanding written language to get more information and develop our
2. Reading Comprehension
Reading comprehension is one of the pillars of the act of reading. Reading
comprehension is the act of understanding what you are reading. While the
definition can be simply stated the act is not simple to teach, learn or practice.
Reading comprehension is an intentional, active, interactive process that
occurs before, during and after a person reads a particular piece of writing.
Harris and Sipay (1980: 179), who say that reading comprehension ability is
taught to be a set of generalized knowledge acquisition that permits people to
acquire and exhibit information gained as a consequence of reading printed
language.
Reading comprehension is the ability to gain information from the texts
for the purpose to know the whole information deeply. So that it will force the
readers to read the whole texts to gain the covert information. However,
Comprehension is a highly complex cognitive process involving the
intentional interaction between the reader and the text to create meaning. In
other words, comprehension doesn’t just happen; it requires effort. Readers
must intentionally and purposefully work to create meaning from what they
read (David Chard, 2008).
In short, reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it and
understand its meaning. Without comprehension, reading is nothing more than
tracking symbols on a page with your eyes and sounding them out. With the
and productively, but also to continue to develop socially, emotionally and
intellectually.
3. The Major Components of Reading Comprehension
To understand issues relate to how one reads and how reading ability
develops, the following components are thought to contribute in important
ways to reading comprehension (Donald J. Leu, Jr. 1987. 30-38).
a. Decoding knowledge
Decoding knowledge refers to the knowledge readers use to determine the
oral equivalent of a written word. Decoding knowledge is important for
comprehension when determining the oral equivalent of a word helps a reader
identify meaning. This is frequently true for beginning readers.
b. Vocabulary knowledge
Vocabulary knowledge is the knowledge one has about word meanings
used to determine the appropriate meaning for a word in a particular context.
Helping students develop vocabulary knowledge is important at all grades
levels, but it is particularly important aspect of reading instruction as students
develop and explore less familiar subject areas with some what specialized
c. Syntactic knowledge
Knowledge of sentence syntax, or word order, is also crucial for the
comprehension process. Syntactic knowledge includes understanding word
order rules that exist within sentences and permit you to determine the
grammatical function and often the meaning and pronunciation of words.
d. Discourse knowledge
Discourse knowledge is the knowledge of language organization at units
beyond the single sentence level. It includes knowledge of the structural
organization of different types of writing. Discourse knowledge often receives
greater instructional emphasis at higher grade levels.
e. Readiness aspects
Readiness refers to two different concepts. Traditionally, reading readiness
is the ability of students to benefit from initial reading instruction. Reading
readiness describes the abilities required for reading and comprehending any
particular piece of printed materials. The level of reading readiness will
influence how students comprehend written text.
f. Affective aspects
Reading is a language process but it is also an affective process. Affective
These increase motivation and facilitate reading comprehension. Affective
aspects are important to consider at all age and grade levels.
The major components of reading very influence someone in
comprehending the text well. Every student has different interpretation based
on their understanding the text. If they can comprehend the text perfectly, they
will know what the writer meant in the text. Thus, students have to master the
major component of reading.
4. The Aims of Reading
The aims of Reading is looking for and getting information from books,
references, texts or others. In Reading, the students have to understand the
idea, the context, and the meaning of the texts in the passage. According to
Anderson (1972:10) there are some purposes of reading, those are:
a. Reading for details or fact
The students read the text to get detail information of text or know the
inversion that have been done by the writer or solve the problem of the writer.
b. Reading for main idea
The students read the text (books) to know why the topic is good or
interesting find the problems on the passage and make summaries of the
c. Reading for sequence or organization
The students read the text to know what is happening in each part of the
passage in every episode and solve the problem of the text.
d. Reading for inference
The students read the text in order to find out the conclusion from the
action or idea in the text.
e. Reading to classify
The students read the text to classify some information or actions of the
writer in the text or paragraph.
f. Reading to evaluate
The students read the text to find out the characteristic of each character
then evaluate them, either the character can be imitated or not and the student
tries to evaluate the writer has done or what he tries to explain or contrast.
g. Reading to compare or contrast
The students read to compare the plot of the text or content that having
similarity with the readers or even contrast.
Based on the description above, it can be assumed that the aims of reading
are to get detail information of text, to classify some information or actions of
whether having similarity with him or even contrast etc.
5. The Instructional Frameworks
An instructional framework consists of the materials, methods, and beliefs
about reading that teachers use to guide their instructional decisions. Teachers
often use three types of frameworks to meet the challenges of reading
instruction: frameworks based on a set of instructional materials; instructional
methods; and understanding of reading comprehension. (Donald J. Leu, Jr.
1987. 15-19)
a. Materials frameworks
A framework based on a set of instructional material, or a materials
framework, consists of the materials and lesson planning information available
in a published set of materials, whether a kit of graded activity cards,
computer software, or a complete reading program.
b. Method frameworks
A framework based on an instructional method, or a method framework,
consists of the knowledge of the procedural steps for one or more instructional
methods and the options that may be selected at each step in a procedure. Here
example of one type of method framework, a directed reading thinking activity.
A framework based on understanding reading comprehension, or a
comprehension framework, consists of answers to two questions: How does
one read? and How does reading ability develop? A comprehension
framework is more abstract than either a material and method framework since
it is not based on any specific set of method or materials. A comprehension
framework is a perspective, based on understanding what we do when we
read.
B. Narrative
1. Definition of Narrative Text
English must be learned as a second language that is the major language
spoken in the community or the language of instruction in the schools, where
English is taught as a foreign language. To make the students feel enjoyable
and pleasure in learning reading, teachers must select interesting reading text
to teach reading. Meyers (2005:52) states that narrative is one of the most
powerful ways of communicating with others. A good reading story lets your
reader response to some event in your life as if it were own. They not only
understand the event, but they can almost feel it. The action, details, and
dialogue put the readers in these seem and make it happen for them.
Moreover, Anderson (1997:8) states that narrative is a piece of text tells a
story and, in doing so, entertains or informs the reader or listener. Narrative
text is a piece of writing that tells a story. The story can be imaginary or based
the climax and then turn into a solution to the problem (Sudarwati, Grace
2007:154).
From the definition above, it can be concluded that narrative story is a
story tells us about something interesting that has purpose to amuse, entertain
or the readers.
2. Components of Narrative Text
Anderson (1997: 8) states that the steps for constructing a narrative are:
a. Orientation
The readers are introduced to the main characters and possibly some minor
characters. Some indications are generally given of where the action is located
and when it is taking place.
b. Complication/ rising action
The complication is pushed along by a serious of events, during which we
usually expect some sort of complication or problem to arise. It just would
not be so interesting if something unexpected did not happen. This
complication will involve the main characters and often serves toward them
from reaching their goal.
c. Sequence of event/ Climax
This is where the narrator tells how the character reacts to the
in chronological order (the order in which they happen) or with flashback. The
audience is given the narrator’s point of view.
d. Resolution/ falling action
In this part, the implication may be resolved for better or worse, but it
is rarely left completely unresolved (although this is of course possible in
certain toes of narrative which leaves us wondering ‘How did it end?’)
e. Reorientation
It is an optional closure of event.
3. Language Features of Narrative Text
According to Sudarwati, Eudia Grace (2007:154), here some language
features of Narrative text as follows:
a. Using nouns: travelers, bundles, tree, road, etc.
b. Using pronouns: they, their, its, it, etc.
c. Using noun phrases: the dusty and rough road, a big old tree, etc.
d. Using time connectives and conjunctions: one day, a week later,
then, long time ago, when, etc.
e. Using adverbs and adverbial phrases: angrily, in horror, etc.
f. Using action verb: arrived, ate, went, laughed, etc.
g. Using saying verb: asked.
Moreover, Anderson (1997: 15) says that the language features usually
found in narrative texts are:
a. specific characters
b. time words that connect to tell when they occur
c. verbs to show the action that occur in the story.
d. descriptive words to portray the character and setting.
4. Narrative Text Types
There are many different types of narrative according to Anderson
(1997:8):
a. Fantasy is fiction contains unrealistic or unworldly elements and
magical adventure. Six basic motifs are covered: magic, secondary
worlds, good versus evil, heroism, special character types, and
fantastic objects.
b. Fable is a short allegorical narrative making a moral point,
traditionally by means of animal characters that speak and act like
human beings.
c. Mystery is a narrative that involves a crime or intriguing problem
around which the plot is built. The main character embarks on a
search to reveal the hidden secrets to explain clue-based events,
find the truth and solve the problem. The focus is on the character
and actions of the person solving the crime rather than on the
d. Fairy tales is a fictitious story about things that happened long ago,
or things that may not have really happened.
e. Myth is a story that usually explains something about the world
and involves gods and other superhuman beings.
f. Realistic fiction is a classification of literature containing stories
that could happen in the real world, in a time and setting that is
possible, and with characters that are true to life, yet drawn from
the writer’s imagination.
g. Folktale is a story with no known author. Folktales are passed
down from one generation to another by word of mouth.
h. Legend is a narrative of human actions that are perceived both by
teller and listener to take place within human history.
i. Science fiction is fiction based upon some imagined development
of science, or upon the extrapolation of a tendency in society.
Science fiction is that class of prose narrative treating of a situation
that could not arise in the world we know.
j. Poetry is a literature expressed in various, metrical forms,
structures and arrangements that are traditionally characterized by
rhythmical patterns of language.
k. Romance is a genre of fiction focused on romantic love.
Based on the types of narrative text above, the themes of narrative
text which will be developed in this research are fable, fairytales and
C. The DRTA (Directed Reading Thinking Activity) Strategy 1. The Concept of DRTA
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity, or DR-TA, is a technique
developed by Russell Stauffer (1969). DRTA encourages students to
make predictions while they are reading. After reading segments of a
text, students stop, confirm or revise previous predictions, and make
new predictions about what they will read next.
AdLit.org (2008) states that the Directed Reading Thinking
Activity (DRTA) is a strategy that guides students in asking questions
about a text, making predictions, and then reading to confirm or refute
their predictions. The DRTA process encourages students to be active
and thoughtful readers, enhancing their comprehension.
El-Koumy (2004) states that the DR-TA engages students in
thinking about what they read in three phases. In the first phase,
students generate predictions about what they are going to read based
on the title of the text. In the second phase, they read to confirm or
reject their predictions. In the third phase, they evaluate their
predictions using information from the text to support their opinions.
He maintains that this strategic process can develop students’ reading
comprehension skills as well as their higher-order thinking skills.
DRTA is a useful tool for teachers to model accurate and
appropriate reading skills (Richardson & Morgan, 1997). A DRTA
activity can be easily adapted for a variety of subjects and reading
levels. This strategy helps strengthen reading and critical thinking
skills. As the teacher guides the process, the DRTA teaches students to
determine the purpose for reading and make adjustments to what they
think will come next based on the text.
2. The Procedural Steps of DRTA
A procedural outline for a Directed Reading Thinking Activity
(Donald J. Leu, Jr. 1987. 17):
a. Predicting
During this first step, teacher asks students what they expect to find
when they read. At the beginning ask questions like, What will a story
with this title be about? Why? Later in a story, ask questions like,
What do you think will happen next? Why? Each student should form
a prediction and be able to support it.
b. Reading
During this second step, ask students to read up to a specified point
in the story and check their predictions. They may read either orally or
silently. For example, tell students to read up to the end of a certain
c. Proving
During this third step, ask students to evaluate their predictions
within the context of a discussion. Ask questions like, was your guess
correct? Why or why not? At the end of the discussion, begin the
procedural cycle again and have students predict what will take place
in the next portion of the story. Continue in a similar fashion until you
finish reading the story.
DRTA is an effective strategy which includes three procedural
steps repeated throughout a reading passage: predicting, reading and
proving.
3. The Aims of DRTA
Directed Reading Thinking Activity is an important strategy
because it encourages the readers to be more aware of the strategies
they use to interpret text, help students understand the reading process
and develop their prediction skills. DRTA strategy also helps students
to stimulate thinking and develop hypotheses about text which aid
interpretation and comprehension. Moreover, this strategy can increase
understanding of the purposes and effects of the structures, features of
particular texts and text-types (Abdel Salam, 2006).
If used effectively, DRTA has the potential to equip students with
and assimilates information; examine reading materials based on
purposes for reading; and make decisions based upon information
gleaned from reading. The DR-TA can help students read, think,
understand, and remember what they have read.
4. The Advantages and Disadvantages of DRTA
DRTA strategy has some benefits. It helps students to develop their
critical reading skills and their reading comprehension. It also can
monitor students understanding of the text as they're reading. The
students understand the content of the text step by step. It starts from
activating prior knowledge, then predicting what they will learn about
the topic and the last is proving. From that step, the students will
practice how to understand the text accurately. Then this strategy
encourages students to be active, thoughtful readers and activates their
prior knowledge. The process of predicting, reading, and proving make
the students are not passive in reading class. They use their mind to be
more aware about the topic given may be known yet by the students
(AdLit.org, 2008).
Nevertheless, DRTA strategy also has their weaknesses. It may be
time consuming, depending on the length of the text. This is because
D. Teaching Reading Narrative Using DRTA
According to (AdLit.org, 2008), teachers should follow the steps
below when creating a DRTA:
1. Determine the text to be used and pre-select points for students to
pause during the reading process.
2. Introduce the text, the purpose of the DRTA, and provide examples
of how to make predictions.
Note: Be aware of the reading levels of each student, and be
prepared to provide appropriate questions, prompts, and support as
needed.
3. Use the following outline to guide the procedure:
D = DIRECT. Teachers direct and activate students' thinking prior to reading a passage by scanning the title, chapter headings,
illustrations, and other materials. Teachers should use open-ended
questions to direct students as they make predictions about the content
or perspective of the text (e.g., "Do you know the story of Cinderella?"
“Was Cinderella a beautiful girl?”).
R = READING. Students read up to the first pre-selected stopping point. The teacher then prompts the students with questions about
specific information and asks them to evaluate their predictions and
refine them if necessary. This process should be continued until
students have read each section of the passage.
through the text and think about their predictions. Students should
verify or modify their predictions by finding supporting statements in
the text. The teacher asks questions such as:
o What do you think about your predictions now?
o What did you find in the text to prove your predictions?
o What did you read in the text that made you change your
predictions?
A = ACTIVITY. Here, activity means all of the steps or what the teacher and students did along the teaching learning process. Starting
from activating prior knowledge, then predicting what they will learn
about the topic and the last is proving. From that step, the students will
practice how to understand the text accurately.
Differentiated instruction
For second language learners, students of varying reading skill,
students with learning disabilities, and younger learners: first, reading
should be broken into small sections so that the students have time to
think about and process information. Then, the amount of reading
should be adjusted to fit the purpose and the difficulty of the text.
Writing may be included as part of the DRTA. As students become
more comfortable with this strategy, have each student write
predictions in a learning log or on a piece of paper. Then, in small
processes. Next ask students to write summary statements about how
their predictions compared to the passage.
For example:
Cinderella
Once upon a time there was a beautiful girl called
Cinderella. She lived with her stepsister and stepmother. They
were very bossy. She had to do all the homework.
One day an invitation to the ball came to the family. Her
stepsister did not let her go. Cinderella was very sad. The stepsister
went to the ball without her.
Fortunately, the fairy godmother came and helped her to get
to the ball. At the ball, Cinderella danced with the prince. The
prince fell in love with her, and then he married her. They lived
happily ever after.
a. Exploration
Teacher gives a text.
Teacher explains the general information about Narrative
text.
Teacher explains about DRTA strategy and how to use this
b. Elaboration
Step 1: Predicting
Teacher directs and activates students’ thinking prior
knowledge to read a passage by scanning the title.
Teacher gives open-ended question to direct students as
they make prediction.
Teacher gives these following question:
- Have you ever heard about Cinderella story?
- What do you think about Cinderella?
- What do you think the writer’s purpose for writing this
text?
Step 2: Reading
Teacher asks students to read up to the first stopping point
silently.
Teacher asks students to make prediction, directing and
reading is possible to be used together.
Teacher asks students to evaluate their prediction and refine
their prediction if necessary.
Step 3: Thinking
Teacher asks students to go back through the text and think
about their prediction by finding supporting statements in the
text.
- What do you think about your prediction now?
- What did you find in the text to prove your prediction?
- What did you read in the text that made you change
your prediction?
Step 4: Activity
Teacher gives exercises for students.
Teacher asks students to do the exercises.
c. Confirmation
Teacher asks about students’ understanding during
teaching learning process.
Teacher reviews students’ comprehend about what had
been learned.
E. Basic Assumption
Directed Reading Thinking Activity has been shown to be
an effective strategy for reading. It stimulates thinking and makes
the students, not the teacher, responsible for setting the purpose.
The DRTA process encourages students to be active and thoughtful
readers, and help their comprehension. This strategy helps
strengthen reading and critical thinking skills. DRTA is an
effective teaching strategy. Students enjoy making predictions and
F. Hypothesis
Based on the explanation above, this research has
hypothesis that DRTA strategy is effective for students’ reading
