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KATA PENGcANTAR
Puji dan syukur kami panjatkan kehadirat Tuhan Yang Maha Esa. Atas limpahan rahmat dari-Nya kami dapat menyelesaikan pembuatan makalah mengenai pembahasan jurnal bertopik teknologi dan perbankan yang berjudul :
“The Introduction of Information Technology in The Commercial Banking Sector of Developing Countries : Voices from Sudan”
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Kami menyadari terdapat banyak kekurangan dalam makalah ini. Untuk itu kritik serta saran yang membangun sangat kami harapkan agar di penugasan berikutnya kami dapat meminimalisasi kekurangan tersebut. Semoga ada manfaat yang dapat diambil oleh pembaca dari makalah ini.
DAFTAR ISI
JURNAL
The introduction of information technology in the commercial banking sector of developing countries : voices from Sudan
Author: Mohamed Osman Shereif Mahdi; Dawson, Patrick
Publication info: Information Technology & People 20.2 (2007): 184-204. ProQuest document link
Abstract: This article sets out to draw on new empirical research to illustrate how the
process of technological change is shaped by a combination of contextual elements that relate to the political and social history of Sudan. The developments in infrastructure, relationships with economically powerful industrialized countries, and the attitudes and perceptions of key decision makers are discussed Primary data were collected from fieldwork conducted in Sudan for six months, and this was combined with secondary data that were collected from several conventional sources. The design adopted a dual methodological approach that comprised a combination of quantitative and qualitative techniques. This article draws mainly on the qualitative data set, although a summary is provided of some of the main results from the questionnaire survey. The findings highlight the need for bank general managers and IT managers to collaborate in the establishment of IT strategies and in ensuring that there are sufficient staff and budgetary resources for successful implementation.There is also a need to develop comprehensive banking policies in Sudan in order to support the replacement of traditional manual methods of banking with more advanced computer-based systems. Managing this process is not simply a technical issue, but a complex socio-political challenge that requires management sensitivity to the context within which change is taking place. Fieldwork in Sudan was constrained by both time and limited financial resources, and further frustrated by a number of unanticipated access difficulties. Some of the survey findings may have been affected by missing data, and some of the interview data may have been affected by translation from Arabic into English. However, the multi-strategy research employed in this study did prove effective in generating useful data. In the case of developing countries, the data sets and literature available are in short supply, and as such the findings contribute to this limited knowledge base in presenting new empirical evidence and analysis.
The study highlights the importance of three broad categories - social-political context, business economic and technological environment, and the historical and cultural climate of Sudan and the banking industry - in shaping the uptake and introduction of new technology in the Sudanese banking industry.
Full text: Introduction
infrastructure, relationships with economically powerful industrialized countries, and the attitudes and perceptions of key decision makers. The discovery of oil has been a major driver for the Sudanese economy since the 1990s and the value of such a find has attracted international investors and overseas interest. Growing international activity around oil exploration and extraction spotlight the problems of traditional banking methods that rest on manual operations.
During this period, a movement from a centralized state-regulated economy to free market economy following the formulation of a Comprehensive National Strategy (CNS) in Khartoum in 1992, and a shift in the focus of policies emanating from the Central Bank of Sudan (BOS), all drew attention to the low levels of investment in banking technology. BOS recognized that an absence of technology was a key factor inhibiting economic development of the Sudanese economy. Recognition that there was a lack of investment and poor utilization of computer-based information systems also drew attention to the need for a national IT strategy for the Sudanesebanking industry (SBI). In other words, understanding the context within which these developments are taking place is critical to making sense of technology and change in Sudan. In this article we argue that while technology shapes the process of change, it does not do so independently of the context within which change takes place (see [35] Preece et al. , 2000) and that in practice, there is a complex combination of elements that serve to influence the pace, direction and outcomes of technological change on banking operations in Sudan.
Literature review
Prior to conducting fieldwork in Sudan, a literature review was conducted in two main areas: studies in the field of corporate strategy and organizational change; and the technology and change literature, with a particular focus on information technology and the banking industry. In reading and assessing a substantial amount of material, a number of key concepts and theoretical approaches were identified as being pertinent to the proposed fieldwork in Sudan. For example, resistance to change is one of the most frequently quoted reasons for the lack of accomplishment of organizational change ([33] Palmer et al. , 2006). Employee resistance to change is evident when employee actions aim to discredit, postpone, subvert, or block the implementation of a workplace change initiative ([20] Hughes, 2006, pp. 118- 127). Whether change is real or illusive, deliberate or accidental, large or small ([12] Davis and Newstrom, 2006; [31] O'Brien, 1999; [25] Laudon and Laudon, 2000; [19] Hong and Kim, 2002), and irrespective of its character, personnel will attempt to protect themselves from what they perceive as the negative impacts of change ([24] Kirkpatrick, 2001). As employees will differ in the way that they perceive and evaluate change, it is not unusual to have those who support, those who resist, and those who are ambiguous to proposed change initiatives ([40] Walsh et al. , 2006). On this count, the change literature highlights the importance of planning for change, frequently recounting [27], [28] Lewin's planned model (1947, 1951), which was developed to identify and examine three main stages of change:
unfreezing; changing; and
Essentially, Lewin argues that in order to reduce staff resistance the labour force should be encouraged to get involved and to contribute to discussions on planning for change ([8] Clutterbuck and Crainer, 1990). In examining how change unfolds in practice, [13] Dawson (2003) argues that change should be seen as acomplex dynamic process, and not as a series of linear events (see also [34] Pettigrew, 1985). These two theories of organizational change informed our study in drawing attention to the importance of employee involvement and the emergent and ultimately unforeseen nature of change programmes. As [20] Hughes (2006, p. 26) notes: Acknowledgement of the unknown is believed to be particularly pertinent to change management in that change involves movement to some future state that comprises a context and time that remains unknown.
In our review of the literature we also examined studies on information technology and change in the banking industry. We discovered that the organizational change and information systems technology literatures are closely intertwined, as IT/IS is one of the biggest drivers for organizational change ([26] Laudon and Laudon, 2001). The decision to adopt new technology and the process of implementing change takes time and is likely to be influenced by contextual factors both within and outside organizations ([20] Hughes, 2006, p. 42). Studies consistently highlight how implementing new technology is a social process and not just a technical issue (see [35] Preece et al. , 2000) and that such changes have an impact on other components of the organization, such as culture and patterns of communication. For example, [32] Orlikowski (1992, p. 749) argues for a reconceptualization of technology that takes into account both the technical and social aspects of change – in other words, organizational properties, such as systems and structure, as well as the human aspects of technology (such as a change in the nature of working relationships) that arise as a result of technologicalchange. As such, IT is no longer considered as merely a supportive tool for existing organizational processes, but affords the possibility as an integrating technology for initiating business changes that shape structures in organizations and necessitates behavioural change that align operating practices with cultural needs ([41] Ward, 1987; [11] Davenport et al. , 1989; [5] Chan and Huff, 1993; [17] Grover et al. , 1993; [1] Baets et al. , 1995).
The history of technology in banking highlights how IT has changed the methods by which the banking industry operates. For example, most foreign exchange business trades are now done through IT ([2] Batiz-Lazo and Wood, 2002). International banks are thus large investors in technology; for example, the total expenditure on IT systems by European banks exceeded $21 billion in 1999 ([18] Harris, 2001) and since this time, there has been a further increase in banking investment in technology and especially on internet banking and security
payment technology in European banking. Moreover, in the case of less developed countries, [37] Sachan (2005) describes how IT is changing the nature of banking in India and the consequences of change for competition with a noticeable growth in private and foreign banks.
In our analysis of technology and change in Sudan, we seek to examine not only the technology but also the social and contextual forces that shape the uptake and use of IT in identifying the main enabling and constraining factors on banking developments in less-developed countries. Building a conceptual framework In examining contextual issues in the uptake and implementation of IT, a conceptual framework developed from the literature review was used to analyze the process of change in the Sudanese banking industry (SBI). Three broad categories of determinants were identified:
the political and social context; the business economic and technological environment; and the historical and cultural climate within which change unfolds. The political and social context refers to the internal socio-political and external global environment in which strategies for change can be formulated. These impact on the process of the introduction and implementation of technology and shape the direction and outcomes of change. In the case of Sudan, there have been several turbulent political systems of national governments ranging between military and civilian regimes. The armed forces in many developing countries are well known for taking over elected civilian governments through successive military coups, which causes socio-economic and policy instability, and a disruption of the social setting throughout the country. In our case, Sudan experienced a number of military changes in the 1980s and following the bombing of Khartoum by the US military in 1998-1999 and their post-9/11 policy towards the Sudan, US distrust of the regime has continued following continuing violence in Sudan's western region of Darfur ([14] Dinmore, 2007). As a recent article in the Financial Times notes, the United Nations continues "to assemble a viable international protection mission in Darfur [...] which has been the scene of conflict since the outbreak of a rebellion in early 2003" ([39] Turnerat, 2007). Under these conditions, access to foreign investment and the introduction of IT in the SBI remains constrained.
2006 (the Egyptian Bank and the Emirates Bank). These banks have come with banking technologies that would encourage competition and thus would impact on the introduction of IT in the SBI ([7] CIA World Factbook , 2007).
The Sudanese government has budgeted future revenues for infrastructure refurbishments and a Multi-Donor Trust Fund (MDTF), which is administered by the World Bank (WB), was created to support business development projects, including the SBI ([16] Energy Information Administration, 2007). The historical and cultural climate refers to the prevailing customs, traditions and practices, as well as the critical events that influence the process of technological change. Civil wars, drought and famine, internal turmoil, industrial unrest and the security situation in Sudan continue to cause problems. Furthermore, the cultural legacy of private business ownership that supported a policy of low risk investment has impacted on IT change in SBI.
These three categories of factors are not discrete in practice, but rather overlap and influence each other in shaping the processes and outcomes of change. For example, writing off the huge international debts incurred by developing countries, lifting imposed economic sanctions or withdrawing any political boycott is likely to revive an economy, encourage the establishment of new relationships and enable greater engagement with others in the international business community. In contrast, a change in political government by a military coup creates a climate of uncertainty and a sense of insecurity, which in turn is likely to discourage both local and foreign investment. As such, we sought to design a study that would enable us to analyze the influence of interacting elements on the development and use of new technology in the banking industry of a developing country - in our case, Sudan.
The study: rationale and research hypotheses In drawing on the local experience and knowledge of one author, the Sudanese banking industry (SBI) was identified as an industry that plays a crucial role in the economic development of Sudan. The SBI was selected because it is the most regulated sector compared to other sectors in Sudan. In general, banks operate in an information-rich system whereby financial institutions are critically dependent on IT activity for their daily operations. However, within the banking sector in Sudan there is: - poor utilization of computer-based information technology;
- a lack of knowledge and experience among bank managers about the time required for the implementation of IT banking systems; and
- a gap between the introduction of IT and staff training.
In addition, there are differences in background interests and investment priorities between bank managers and information technology specialists, which further impede the uptake and introduction of new technology in the SBI. As such, the main aim of the study was to explain the process of technology and change in the Sudanese banking sector, and to identify policy implications for the introduction and implementation of IT in developing countries.
During the study design, four key research questions were identified that shaped the design of the questionnaire and the interview schedules. These were as follows:
What are the main differences in interests/priorities between bank mangers and IT managers and how far havethese differences enabled or constrained change?
What has been the degree of general manager and IT manager involvement in steering the change process?
To what extent has a lack of IT managerial knowledge and skill influenced change?
From identifying these general areas of interest and concern, four general hypotheses were formulated that could be tested through the survey questionnaire. These were as follows: H1. General managers were not directly involved in planning for IT strategies due to their lack of IT knowledge and their perception that this task was the responsibility of IT managers. H2. Differences in interests and priorities between general managers and IT managers acted as a barrier to change in the SBI.
H3. General managers did not view IT change as a key element of their work and this consequent lack of involvement constrained change.
H4. A lack of IT knowledge among general managers acted as a barrier to change and inhibited the change process.
These four hypotheses were addressed by a number of specific questions that were used in a mixed-methods approach that involved the design of a questionnaire and the construction of an interview schedule for the collection of qualitative data. For example:
What are the reasons for adoption, introduction and implementation of IT in the SBI? Who initiated the introduction and implementation of IT in the SBI?
Do managers have the necessary knowledge and understanding of IT to support change? What are the types of IT introduced and implemented in the SBI?
Why is IT being adopted, introduced and implemented in the SBI now?
To what extent has the SBI complied with the directives of the BOS in the implementation of IT?
Do managers have direct involvement in planning for IT change? Do banks have strategies to shift over to IT in the SBI?
What are the management strategies for introducing and implementing IT in the SBI? What problems have banks encountered when introducing and implementing IT?
Do differences in background, interests and priorities exist among managers and information technology specialists?
What are the attitudes of managers towards those who resist change?
To what extent is the introduction and implementation of IT affected by organizational culture?
Fieldwork: towards a mixed methods approach for data collection and analysis
were given to general managers and IT managers in SBI at their head offices in Khartoum. The questions sought opinions on issues such as:
- the change management processes involved in introducing IT; - strategies adopted for managing change of IT in the SBI; and - organizational barriers and reasons for resistance to change.
Out of 54 distributed questionnaires in 27 bank headquarters in Khartoum (the 27 bank headquarters represent the whole population of the SBI), 49 responses were received. The study gathered data by using such an approach and as it turned out, the self-administered questionnaire produced a 90.7 percent response rate of the respondents targeted. Snap 6 was used to scan the data into the computer, and the Statistical Package for Social Scientists (SPSS) was employed to analyse the questionnaire data ([23] Kinnear and Gray, 1999).
Although it was initially thought that the chi-square test could be used, the test yielded inaccurate resultsbecause more than 20 percent of cells had an expected count of less than five. Consequently, non-parametric test/distribution free test, such as a Mann-Whitney U test for statistical significance, was employed to test for significant differences using p <0.05 as the statistical level of significance ([23] Kinnear and Gray, 1999).
conditions and design appealing pay structures to attract and keep qualified and skilled employees in the country.
Fieldwork in Sudan was constrained by both time and limited financial resources, which were further frustrated by a number of unanticipated access difficulties, although the multi-strategy research employed in this study did prove effective in generating useful data. Nevertheless, there are some limitations to the study. For example, some of the survey findings may have been affected by missing data, and some of the interview data may have been affected by translation from Arabic into English. The researcher was also constrained by time, financial support and the nature of the fieldwork, as data collection often depended on the researcher's personal relationship with contacts. Furthermore, it is not possible to generalise the research findings of the Sudanese banking case on all banking sectors in developing countries, as their population is not homogeneous. Also, confining the research to one leading-edge industry (SBI) might limit the capability to generalise the results of the study to other business sectors. Despite the questionnaire and interview limitations and difficulties encountered during the data collection period, the dual method employed in this study, which used the selfadministered questionnaire and a programme of semi-structured interviews, proved effective in gathering data that were useful in answering the research questions posed. The mixed methodology was effective in testing basic hypotheses through the use of a survey questionnaire, proved valuable in working within the time constrains and budget limitations of the study, and was useful in collecting rich data that were crucial in answering more contextual research questions.
Summary findings from the questionnaire Before embarking on a more detailed analysis of the qualitative data - the main focus of this article - it is worth summarizing some of the main findings from the survey questionnaire. Essentially, our data supported the hypothesis that there is typically little IT knowledge and skill among general managers within the Sudanese banking industry (SBI). Nonetheless, the data highlights how respondents held considerable knowledge andskill with regards to specific applications (for example, Microsoft Office, e-mail and the internet). In comparison, IT managers have statistically significantly more IT knowledge and skill on all IT/computer packages. Our analysis also reveals that nine respondents - four general managers and five IT managers - report their banks as foreign banks operating in Sudan owing to international sanctions and the economic embargo. The majority of banks in the population are of small size, largely due to the lack of investment by private bank owners.
experts such as IT managers. Moreover, a number of key questions were identified and examined, including:
- the decision to introduce new technology; - type of equipment and systems purchased; - scale of change that has taken place; and
- the degree of local management involvement in the uptake and implementation of new systems.
The key findings from these questions reveal that the main reason for the introduction and implementation of IT in Sudanese banks is not only to provide better banking services (46.2 percent), but also to comply with the directives of the BOS (29.7 percent). The BOS established its Banking Technology Department (BTD) to focus on initiating and implementing technological projects within the SBI. The BTD plays a supervisory and regulatory role for the central bank in the area of IT, passing on BOS policies and directives on IT to Sudaneses banks.
The other survey results from our study highlight how:
- The need for IT adoption was initiated at the top managerial level of the Sudanese banks (general managers, 31.1 percent; BOS, 24.3 percent; board of directors, 23.3 percent; IT managers, 19.4 percent; trade unions, 1.9 percent), suggesting that the change management decision-making process was a top-down approach.
- More than one-third (19) of respondents believe that the process of introducing banking IT had started but had not yet been fully implemented; and almost two-thirds (31) of the respondents believe that banking IT had been implemented in their banks.
- "Interbranch On-line Services", were ranked top among the international electronic banking services planned for introduction and implementation; whereas "Credit Card Services" represented the least likely services planned for introduction and implementation in the SBI. - More than half of Sudanese banks acquired banking IT systems from external vendors, and these vendors in turn played an influential role in shaping banking practices in the Sudanese banking sector.
- Installations of core-banking systems are constrained by the BOS directive, which specified that no one corebanking system could be installed in more than 25 percent of the Sudanese banks. This promoted a free market IT strategy in order to guarantee that banks are not dependent on a single source IT provider.
- Sudanese banks bought banking IT systems from a number of different countries. This shows how Sudanese banks are not constrained in their purchasing decisions for banking IT systems, which can be acquired from the country of their choice. Nonetheless, few banks bought their required banking IT systems from the local market.
- More than a half of respondents believe that the quality of banking IT services currently provided by their bank is good, although about half of respondents believe that the scale of IT change that had taken place in their banks was only average.
they played in planning for IT change. We examined managers' level of agreement with these issues and conducted a Mann-Whitney U test on our hypothesis that general managers are less likely to be directly involved in planning for IT strategies, largely due to lack of IT knowledge, and consequently they play a less important role in planning for IT strategies than their IT managers.
Our findings reveal that IT managers play a substantial role in planning for IT change compared to bank managers in Sudanese banks. The questionnaire findings reveal that more than three-quarters (38) of the respondents believe that their banks (19) have clear strategies to shift over to banking IT, and a similar number of respondents consider that their IT strategies are written and included in the general strategies of the bank. The survey results also show how Sudanese banks are adopting different IT strategies, which reflects an absence of any agreed comprehensive or coherent IT strategy to implementing change in the SBI. The questionnaire data offers mixed views about [99] Parsons' (1983) categorization of generic IT strategies, with a number of respondents indicating elements of central planning and free market approaches. Despite the 25 percent rule that encourages a free-market IT strategy, a considerable number of managers expressed their preference for a single source strategy. Although some of these findings may seem contradictory, they draw attention to the general lack of a comprehensive approach to IT among individual banks within the context of a central drive by the BOS to establish such an approach. Furthermore, the interview data highlights the importance of IT expenditure and the control of budgets by boards of directors, who continue with the traditional practice of restricting IT funds while ensuring that status purchases - such as office furniture and executive cars- are maintained. It is to these more contextual and qualitative dimensions of change that our attention now turns.
Voices from Sudan: issues in the management of technology A number of internal and external contextual issues emerged from the interview data, including ownership of banks and the effects of international trade sanctions on Sudanese banks. In Sudan, bank ownership has evolved in a particular way, and this historical legacy has influenced the process of technological change.
Externally, international sanctions have also constrained the development of new technology and as a number of interviewees explained, this situation has prevented Sudan from interaction and liaison with its Western counterparts. This in turn has affected levels of expertise and knowledge in the introduction and implementation of IT in the SBI. For example, on the issue of bank ownership, interviewees noted how some Sudanese banks are privately owned businesses created by wealthy Sudanese families. These banks are run to generate profits that serve to increase the wealth of particular families, their relatives and business partners. As such, they are resistant to large IT investments that might reduce immediate financial gains. As a senior official noted:
This type of ownership was associated with a low-risk business approach. Senior officials believe that these types of banks are less interested in investing in IT and that this type of bank owner would be unwilling to consider mergers to increase capital. They opposed mergers and acquisitions, which, they believed, could result in weakening their command and control over individual investments. As another senior official stated: There was strong resistance from the bank owners facing the restructuring process. Owners think they cannot increase capital because they don't want to lose control by diminishing their shares, they want to keep their banks without having to cope with BOS requirements, so they resist meeting these requirements, particularly the merger of banks (senior official).
Sanctions are an external issue impacting on the banking system's adoption of new technology. IT consultantsdiscussed how the economic embargo imposed by the USA in 1997 played a major role in preventing Sudan from importing sophisticated technology into the country and maintaining good relationships with large international technology companies worldwide. As one IT consultant explained: In fact, the sanctions played a role in depriving us from looking at the USA and some of the European countries' experiences, and from partnering with leading companies in the market (IT consultant). Other issues are related to the historical and cultural climate of Sudan. The history and culture of banking operations in Sudan constrained IT investment. It was common for banks to spend money on purchasing office furniture and cars for the banks' senior management team rather than technology. As an IT consultant recounted: Banks here see the introduction of technology as imposed by instructions from the BOS and they are forced to go with it. I don't think they lack the funds, but there is a misunderstanding of their priorities. For example, we asked one bank to upgrade their computer machines, but they claimed not to have the budget for that.
Unfortunately, one month later they bought 20 new cars for top management. I think there is underestimation and misunderstanding among these banks of their priorities (IT consultant). IT managers also reported how there were difficulties in setting priorities and distributing financial resources for the adoption and implementation of new technology. IT managers believe that bank managers disregard IT units, and frequently allocate comparatively low IT budgets. As one IT manager explained:
The bank financial committee doesn't approve our budget as requested; they normally cut it down by less than half, which acts as a barrier to increasing assets and updating our systems (IT manager). Political appointments were also identified as a critical management issue impacting on the advancement of banking IT. Bank managers reported how, in the last few decades, there were real problems associated with what they refer to as "political appointments". They discussed how state authorities often appoint banking staff for political reasons and generally ignore their level of expertise or their suitability for the job. As one general manager described:
IT managers suggested that these political appointments were associated with frequent changes in top management. They claimed that the mistake of appointing "loyal individuals" was one of the biggest barriers preventing progress in Sudanese banking operations. They argued that these types of appointment caused changes in policies and created an unstable environment, which led to disruptions in the introduction and implementation of banking technology: In fact we have some problems here - since I joined this bank, executives, administrators and top managers have all been changed, including general managers and the Board of Directors. I have witnessed 5 general managers in the period from 1991 to 2003. One of these managers has no background in IT implementation; he has nothing to do with technology. I think these mistakes of appointing such people were the biggest barrier for the development of IT at the bank. When this man came he stopped everything, then we were 9 months behind, then 1 year, then 11⁄2 years, then 2 years behind schedule. This is the consequence of the frequent changes in top management in this bank, which I think have created disruptions in executing IT projects, which is a pity (IT manager).
A number of Sudanese bank appointments are nepotistic or politically motivated, especially in cases where managers recruit their relatives, friends and/or those who are known to be politically loyal. IT managers suggest that this creates inefficiency and overstaffing in many banks. As one of the IT managers reported: In one period as you know, politics had entered into the banking sector. Many branches were randomly opened. In addition to political recruitments, for example, everyone recruited their relatives. So at one stage the bank discovered that many employees who were recruited had no banking knowledge and this caused a lot of financial problems for the bank (IT manager).
These kinds of political appointments often instigated a breakdown in the work of the banks, changing authority relationships and causing discontinuity that ultimately hindered the achievement of long-term strategies for technological change. These appointments also encouraged nepotism among senior banking officials in further promoting the recruitment of family members, or those who are believed to be politically loyal. This situation was compounded by the problem of skilled labour shortages. Within Sudan, there is a scarcity of qualified IT personnel in the labour market owing to a poor pay structure, which contrasts with more industrialized parts of the world, which can attract a larger number of educated and qualified candidates. Interviewees highlighted the problem of obtaining qualified staff, or retaining skilled staff, given the ongoing problem of staff turnover and poor staff training. The data highlights how the lack of qualified and experienced employees was one of the key staff issues affecting the introduction and implementation of banking technology. IT consultants explained how Sudanese banks are very slow in the process of IT change owing to a lack of sufficiently qualified IT personnel. As an IT consultant reflected:
argued that, although the existing IT employees are educated, their IT practical experience is poor, owing to a lack of international experience. As an IT consultant stated:
I think one of the main barriers to change is the existing IT staff. They are educated, but their IT practical experience is weak, they haven't applied this before, and they haven't travelled abroad to learn how this could be done. For example, they run COBOL under DOS, which is not feasible. If you tell them that this is not useful and impractical, they will say we will upgrade our system. But why upgrade an old system instead of buying a new one right from the beginning? (IT consultant).
In addition, bank managers pointed out how IT staff were designing and running systems that were incompatible with their banking requirements. They suggested that appointing new IT managers who had a combined background in both banking and technology management would make a radical change. As one bank general manager recounted:
We found our IT staff were inactive and not responding to our demands, so we made a drastic positive change in the IT department. We appointed a new IT manager who is a system analyst with a banking background, and he is leading a team combined of both programmers and engineers. His task is to provide his team with the banking requirements and then they design the banking systems accordingly (general manager). In the Sudanese banking sector, IT managers worked as subordinates to their bank managers. Their job structure is typically ranked either with middle or lower management levels. IT consultants indicated that, in term of managerial status, IT personnel working under senior management have less power and control. As one of the IT consultants described:
IT personnel in banks are still very weak in terms of technical know how and almost always in terms of their managerial status. They are below top management and have no upper hand (IT consultant). During interviews, managers also reported how there is a problem with staff turnover in the SBI. For example, bank managers discussed how Sudanese banks are losing some of their well-trained and qualified IT employees to companies overseas. They indicated how many employees go abroad seeking better job opportunities, simply because of their poor financial conditions and the social and economic pressures faced in Sudan. Managers indicated how IT staff tend to flow out of the country, leaving their local jobs behind in order toimprove their economic situation. Some of the bank managers believed that there are few qualified IT experts in Sudan, and that the Central Bank and the Electronic Banking Services Company (EBS) are not doing enough to attract and retain skilled personnel. As an IT manager explained:
proper training on how to operate the new banking technology. In addition, managers suggested that there was a gap between the time when technology was introduced and staff training. As an employee explained: "most of the employees were unable to use computers, or their use is poor because they haven't received proper training". IT consultants who were interviewed suggested that most employees just get help from people on the job when they have problems. They referred to this as "on the job training":
From our experience, current bank employees are not well trained, and there is no foreign or external exposure. They need to be trained properly instead of the current "on the job training" which is now going on, where each employee tries to learn from their nearest colleague sitting beside them (IT consultant). Besides this lack of a defined training timetable and problems with releasing employees to attend training programmes, bank staff also felt that the training that was provided was inadequate. Many also complained about the lack of any precise tailored training programme on new banking technology:
There was no training; we were only trained for one month. So, I never had any training at all. I had no training whatsoever in banking IT and of course, I need more training (employee). A number of employees had taken the initiative and paid for training outside of the formal organization. These employees typically received training on basic computer skills such as introduction to computers and/or training in Microsoft packages, mainly in private institutions. As an employee recounted:
Although I joined this bank in 1994, and my work experience is about 9 years, I trained myself in Microsoft packages as a personal initiative, and I need more training in computer networks (employee). Similarly, another employee stated:
I haven't received any banking IT training here, but I have done four major computer-training courses and a Diploma in computerized accounting system through personal initiative, and I think I need more training in other banking aspects (employee). Managers in Sudanese banks often claim that employees who hold the same post for a long time tend to act as a barrier to change. They were reported to resist IT change for various reasons, including reluctance to work
with the new systems, their doubts about redundancy effects, and fear of loss of authority and control. IT consultants believe that some banking staff resisted the introduction of a new system because of their personal loyalty to top managers. As one of the IT consultants described:
refuse to use the system, make too many complaints about it, and want computer experts to be standing beside them all the time to provide assistance. They have no initiative to start up the computer and work alone. They give us the impression that this is a very difficult task for them to do alone (employee).
Bank managers also discussed how fear of loss of power and control is another reason for long-term employees to resist change. Managers note how some employees raise doubts and spread rumours about the new technology because they are worried about losing influence and control over their departments. As one of the bank general managers asserted:
In the beginning the introduction of IT faced great and fierce resistance. Some employees started spreading rumours and creating doubts. For example, they tried to delay preparation of input data. They created a disruptive environment by saying that this system will not work, it will not succeed and the programme will cause problems. They were either very fearful about using this technology, or they were afraid that they would lose their influence and control over their units or departments (general manager). Bank managers also discussed lack of co-operation as another form of resistance from bank staff. Managers suggest that resistance is reflected in the negative attitudes of employees which they referred to as a kind of "disguised resistance". Bank managers indicate that some employees deny new methods and refuse to work with new systems; for example, some staff insist on working with manual paper-based processes, hide information and make excuses to avoid attending IT training sessions. As one bank general manager commented:
There is delay from the old employees in the upper grades for reasons we all understand. The resistance is hidden and there is what I call a disguised resistance, which is represented by attitudes such as a slow down in taking training decisions, hiding information, making arguments to cut down the training budget, giving illogical reasons to avoid going to IT training, things like that (General Manager).
Apart from delay caused by senior staff because of their lack of cooperation in supporting the process of technological change, IT consultants believe that there was also strong resistance from middle management. IT consultants argue that no employees who have been using manual systems for many years can easily be expected to accept and accommodate new technology-based systems: There was strong resistance from management at the lower levels who rejected the new system and refused to work with the new methods. They insisted on continuing with manual paper work. We were expecting this resistance to occur because no one who has been working for 20 years with the traditional banking system can simply accept this change over night. They can't just be told to work with the new system; they need to be coached first and then slowly convinced to accept the change and gradually work with the new system (IT consultant).
These factors were captured in our conceptual framework, allowing us to identify the main enabling and constraining factors that are shaping processes of technological change in the SBI. We would argue that our framework enables us to link our data and to show, for example, how a change in political government can cause economic instability, reducing the potential to develop international relations and encourage foreign investment, which in turn may change the cultural climate within which change occurs. In accommodating thesefactors, we contend that our data should be considered at a number of different levels, i.e. the international, national, industry sector and organizational levels. Each of these levels presents its own set of contextual conditions that serve to influence the speed, direction and process of change and the way that IT is configured, used or resisted during implementation and development.
Moreover, the BOS extended the initial stage for one more year to allow for the accomplishment of restructuring, whereas another four years are required for full implementation, which is expected to be completed by the end of 2007.
At an organizational level, financial limitations and an inability to raise the appropriate levels of funds to invest in banking IT were major obstacles to the introduction and implementation of new technology. Typically, banks were not prepared to spend money and did not generally encourage computer applications. Unlike their Western counterparts, there is not the same business culture for IT and change in the provision of international financial services. Furthermore, political appointments were a critical management issue impacting on the development of IT. This kind of political appointment can cause a breakdown in banking practices by changing authority relationships and creating a discontinuity that ultimately hinders the achievement of long-term strategies for technological change. Moreover, these appointments further encourage nepotism among senior banking officials to recruit additional family members, or those who have good relations with them, or are believed to be politically loyal, in order to empower themselves and safeguard their positions.
Apart from insufficient funding and these socio-political factors, there are also a number of constraints on staffing, specifically on the low levels of training and development of experienced and able banking staff. Both questionnaire surveys and interview data report that a considerable number of respondents expressed their opinions about the inadequacy of IT training for banking staff. Within Sudan, there is a scarcity of qualified ITpersonnel in the labour market owing to poor pay structures, which contrasts with more industrialized parts of the world, which can attract a larger number of educated and well-qualified candidates. The issues associated with staffing, such as the lack of qualified and experienced IT personnel, staff turnover, poor staff training and resistance from older employees, all highlight some of the non-technical factors that prevent the successful adoption of new technology in Sudanese banks.
Conclusion
There are a different set of circumstances that have to be accommodated in the development of policy and the implementation of change in the pursuit of upgrading financial banking services in the Sudan. For example, a number of internal and external contextual factors including bank ownership, international sanctions and telecommunications infrastructure have in various ways constrained the process of technological change in the Sudanese banking sector. In terms of management issues, nepotistic or politically motivated appointments emerged as an important factor shaping change. Other concerns centred on lack of technology awareness, lack of quality management, fear about security, small technology budgets or funds, and a failure to retain qualified and experienced staff. In addition, there are also a number of constraints on staffing and in particular, on the poor levels of training for new recruits and the lack of staff development programmes for more experienced and able banking staff. Other staff issues included:
- lack of qualified and experienced IT employees; - staff turnover; and
- resistance from older employees to IT change initiatives.
The historical legacy of Sudanese banking, current systems and infrastructure, and banking management, have all had major implications for the development of a sound banking industry in Sudan. This highlights the need for bank GMs and IT managers to collaborate in establishing IT strategies and to ensure that they commit sufficient staff and budget resources to managing the change from more traditional manual banking methods to more advanced computer-based banking systems. As such, managing technological change is not simply a technical problem, but also a complex socio-political process that requires management to carefully consider contextual barriers to change. These findings draw attention to the importance of formulating and implementing policies that go beyond a "technical-fix" type approach, to policies that are contextually aware in seeking to accommodate social and political issues whilst also being sensitive to practical economic constraints. It is through this broader understanding of technological change in the development of policy and implementation strategies, that an environment in which the Sudanese banking industry (SBI) can move forward and compete in
international financial markets is more likely to be achieved.
JURNAL TERJEMAHAN
Pengenalan teknologi informasi di sektor perbankan komersial negara-negara berkembang : suara dari Sudan
Penulis : Mohamed Osman Shereif Mahdi , Dawson , Patrick
Info Publikasi : Teknologi Informasi & People 20,2 ( 2007) : 184-204 . Tautan dokumen ProQuest
Abstrak : Artikel ini menetapkan untuk menarik penelitian empiris baru untuk mengilustrasikan bagaimana proses perubahan teknologi dibentuk oleh kombinasi dari unsur-unsur kontekstual yang berhubungan dengan sejarah politik dan sosial Sudan. Perkembangan di bidang infrastruktur , hubungan dengan negara-negara industri yang kuat secara ekonomi dan sikap serta persepsi dari pembuat keputusan utama didiskusikan melalui data primer yang dikumpulkan dari lapangan yang dilakukan di Sudan selama enam bulan, dan ini dikombinasikan dengan data sekunder yang dikumpulkan dari beberapa sumber konvensional. Desainnya mengadopsi pendekatan ganda metodologis yang terdiri dari kombinasi dari teknik kuantitatif dan kualitatif. Artikel ini dominan menggunakan data kualitatif, meskipun ringkasan disediakan dari beberapa hasil utama dari survei kuesioner. Temuan menyoroti kebutuhan bagi manajer bank umum dan manajer TI untuk berkolaborasi dalam pembentukan strategi TI dan dalam memastikan bahwa ada staf yang cukup dan anggaran untuk keberhasilan pelaksanaan.
Ada juga kebutuhan untuk mengembangkan kebijakan perbankan yang komprehensif di Sudan dalam rangka mendukung penggantian metode manual tradisional perbankan dengan lebih menggunakan sistem berbasis komputer canggih. Mengelola proses ini bukan hanya masalah teknis, tetapi sebuah tantangan sosial-politik yang kompleks yang memerlukan kepekaan manajemen agar perubahan dapat terjadi. Penelitian lapangan di Sudan dibatasi oleh waktu dan terbatas pada sumber daya keuangan, dan selanjutnya dihalangi oleh sejumlah kesulitan akses yang tak terduga.
Teks : Pendahuluan
Teknologi baru merupakan fitur penting dari sistem perbankan internasional, namun ada berbagai faktor sosial, politik dan ekonomi yang dapat menghambat penyerapan dan penggunaan teknologi canggih di negara berkembang seperti Sudan. Artikel ini disusun berdasarkan penelitian empiris baru untuk menggambarkan bagaimana proses perubahan teknologi dibentuk oleh kombinasi dari unsur-unsur kontekstual yang berhubungan dengan sejarah politik dan sosial Sudan, perkembangan infrastruktur, hubungan dengan negara-negara industri yang kuat secara ekonomi, dan sikap serta persepsi pengambil keputusan utama. Penemuan minyak telah menjadi penggerak utama perekonomian Sudan sejak 1990-an dan nilai dari penemuan tersebut telah menarik investor internasional dan minat luar negeri. Tumbuh kegiatan internasional di seluruh eksplorasi minyak dan sorotan ekstraksi masalah metode perbankan tradisional yang bertumpu pada operasi manual .
Selama periode ini, gerakan dari ekonomi negara diatur terpusat untuk ekonomi pasar bebas mengikuti perumusan Strategi Komprehensif Nasional ( CNS ) di Khartoum pada tahun 1992, dan pergeseran kebijakan yang berasal dari Bank Sentral Sudan ( BOS ), semua menarik perhatian pada rendahnya tingkat investasi di bidang teknologi perbankan. BOS mengakui bahwa tidak adanya teknologi merupakan faktor penghambat utama pengembangan ekonomi Sudan. Pengakuan bahwa kurangnya investasi dan minimnya pemanfaatan sistem informasi berbasis komputer juga menarik perhatian pada perlunya strategi TI nasional untuk industri perbankan Sudan ( SBI ). Dengan kata lain, memahami konteks di mana perkembangan ini berlangsung sangat penting untuk menimbulkan keingintahuan terhadap teknologi dan perubahan di Sudan. Pada artikel ini kami berpendapat bahwa saat teknologi membentuk proses perubahan, tidak melakukannya secara independen dari konteks di mana perubahan terjadi (lihat [ 35 ] Preece et al . , 2000 ) dan bahwa dalam prakteknya, ada kombinasi yang kompleks dari elemen yang berfungsi untuk mempengaruhi kecepatan, arah dan hasil dari perubahan teknologi pada operasi perbankan di Sudan .
Tinjauan Pustaka
Sebelum melakukan penelitian lapangan di Sudan, kajian literatur dilakukan dalam dua bidang utama : penelitian di bidang strategi perusahaan dan perubahan organisasi, dan teknologi dan perubahan sastra, dengan fokus khusus pada teknologi informasi dan perbankan industri.
ilusif, disengaja atau tidak disengaja, besar atau kecil ( [ 12 ] Davis dan Newstrom, 2006; [ 31 ] O'Brien , 1999; [ 25 ] Laudon dan Laudon , 2000; [ 19 ] Hong dan Kim , 2002) , dan terlepas dari karakter, personalia akan berusaha untuk melindungi diri dari apa yang mereka anggap sebagai dampak negatif dari perubahan ( [ 24 ] Kirkpatrick , 2001). Sebagai karyawan akan berbeda dalam cara mereka melihat dan mengevaluasi perubahan, jarang sekali memiliki mereka yang mendukung , mereka yang menolak, dan mereka yang ambigu terhadap perubahan yang diusulkan inisiatif ( [ 40 ] Walsh et al . , 2006).
Pada perhitungan ini, literatur perubahan menyoroti pentingnya perencanaan berubah, sering menceritakan [ 27 ], [ 28 ] Model Terencana Lewin (1947 , 1951) , yang dikembangkan untuk mengidentifikasi dan memeriksa tiga tahap utama perubahan :
unfreezing ; changing, dan
refreezing (lihat [ 4 ] Burnes , 2004; . [ 33 ] Palmer et al , 2006) .
Pada dasarnya, Lewin berpendapat bahwa untuk mengurangi resistensi staf angkatan kerja harus didorong untuk terlibat dan berkontribusi dalam diskusi tentang perencanaan untuk perubahan ( [ 8 ] Clutterbuck dan Crainer , 1990) . Dalam meneliti bagaimana perubahan terungkap dalam prakteknya , [ 13 ] Dawson ( 2003) berpendapat bahwa perubahan harus dilihat sebagai proses dinamis yang kompleks, dan bukan sebagai rangkaian acara linier (lihat juga [ 34 ] Pettigrew , 1985). Kedua teori perubahan organisasi ini diinformasikan penelitian kami dalam menarik perhatian terhadap pentingnya keterlibatan karyawan dan kemunculan tak terduga dari program perubahan.
Sebagai [ 20 ] Hughes (2006 , p . 26 ) Catatan :
membentuk struktur dalam organisasi dan memerlukan perubahan perilaku yang sejalan dengan praktik operasi dengan kebutuhan budaya ( [ 41 ] Ward , 1987; [ 11 ] Davenport et al . , 1989; [ 5 ] Chan dan Huff , 1993; [ 17 ] Grover et al . , 1993; [ 1 ] Baets et al . , 1995). Sejarah teknologi di bidang perbankan menyoroti bagaimana TI telah mengubah metode yang dioperasikan industri perbankan. Misalnya, bisnis perdagangan luar negeri kini dilakukan melalui IT ( [ 2 ] Batiz - Lazo dan Wood, 2002). Bank-bank internasional yang berinvestasi besar dalam teknologi, misalnya, total pengeluaran pada sistem TI oleh bank-bank Eropa melebihi $ 21 miliar pada 1999 ( [ 18 ] Harris , 2001) dan sejak saat ini, telah terjadi peningkatan lebih lanjut dalam investasi teknologi di dunia perbankan dan terutama pada internet banking dan security (lihat [ 9 ] Consoli , 2003; [ 6 ] Chen dan Cukie , 2006). Di seluruh dunia, bank terus berinvestasi di bidang TI, misalnya dalam jaringan telekomunikasi dan SWIFT atau Federal Reserve Automatic Clearing House ( ACH ) di Amerika Serikat, dan baru-baru ini, FedACHi untuk transaksi AS ke Kanada, Meksiko dan lima negara Uni Eropa, untuk menghubungkan cabang di luar negeri dengan kantor pusat mereka untuk memungkinkan bank untuk berkomunikasi bisnis secara efektif di seluruh dunia tanpa memperhatikan waktu dan jarak ( [ 15 ] Dixon , 2002; [ 30 ] Marlin , 2004 ). [ 36 ] Rezitis (2006 ) menggambarkan bagaimana efisiensi teknis perbankan Yunani terus membaik, sementara [ 21 ] Humphrey et al . (2006 ) menguraikan beberapa manfaat dari perubahan teknologi pembayaran dalam perbankan Eropa. Selain itu, di negara-negara kurang berkembang , [ 37 ] Sachan (2005 ) menjelaskan bagaimana TI mengubah sifat perbankan di India dan konsekuensi dari perubahan untuk kompetisi dengan pertumbuhan nyata dalam bank swasta dan asing. Dalam analisis kami tentang teknologi dan perubahan di Sudan, kami berusaha untuk memeriksa tidak hanya teknologi tetapi juga kekuatan sosial dan kontekstual yang membentuk penyerapan dan penggunaan TI dalam mengidentifikasi faktor utama dan penghambat pada perkembangan perbankan di negara-negara berkembang.
Membangun kerangka konseptual
Dalam memeriksa masalah kontekstual dalam penyerapan dan penerapan TI, kerangka kerja konseptual dikembangkan dari kajian literatur yang digunakan untuk menganalisis proses perubahan dalam industri perbankan Sudan ( SBI ). Tiga kategori determinan yang teridentifikasi :
Konteks politik dan sosial, lingkungan bisnis ekonomi dan teknologi, dan iklim sejarah dan budaya di mana perubahan terungkap. Konteks politik dan sosial mengacu pada sosio-politik internal dan lingkungan global eksternal dimana strategi untuk perubahan dapat dirumuskan. Ini memiliki dampak bagi proses pengenalan dan penerapan teknologi dan membentuk arah dan hasil perubahan. Dalam kasus Sudan, ada beberapa gejolak sistem politik dari pemerintah nasional berkisar antara rezim militer dan sipil.
negeri. Dalam kasus kami, Sudan mengalami sejumlah perubahan militer pada tahun 1980 dan menyusul pemboman Khartoum oleh militer AS pada tahun 1998-1999 dan kebijakan 9/11 mereka terhadap Sudan, ketidakpercayaan AS terhadap rezim terus diikuti oleh berlanjutnya kekerasan di wilayah barat Sudan dari Darfur ( [ 14 ] Dinmore , 2007). Sebagai sebuah artikel terbaru dalam catatan Financial Times, PBB memutuskan "untuk merakit sebuah misi perlindungan internasional yang layak di Darfur [ ... ] yang telah menjadi ajang konflik sejak pecahnya pemberontakan pada awal 2003 " ( [ 39 ] Turnerat , 2007 ). Dengan kondisi tersebut, akses ke investasi asing dan pengenalan TI di SBI masih terkendala.
Lingkungan bisnis ekonomi dan teknologi mengacu pada pasar bisnis nasional dan internasional di mana perusahaan bersaing dan beroperasi dan teknologi pengembangan dan ketersediaan dan terkait produk dan jasa. Kegiatan bisnis dapat dibatasi dan diaktifkan oleh fluktuasi pada tingkat aktivitas bisnis dan dengan potensi untuk membeli dan memanfaatkan teknologi canggih. Nasionalisasi perusahaan swasta dan milik asing, yang berlangsung pada tahun 1969, dibatalkan pada tahun 1973, dengan banyak bisnis disita dikembalikan. Infrastruktur teknologi Sudan merupakan daerah yang membutuhkan investasi lebih lanjut dan pengembangan ekonomi bisnis yang bergeser ke arah pasar bebas. Dari tahun 1997 sampai saat ini Sudan telah menerapkan reformasi ekonomi makro IMF, yang telah lebih lanjut mempengaruhi perkembangan ekonomi Sudan. Sebagai contoh, melalui peningkatan produksi minyak, menghidupkan kembali industri ringan, dan memperluas zona pengolahan ekspor, pertumbuhan PDB adalah 10 persen pada tahun 2006. Sudan mencatat surplus perdagangan pertamanya, yang bersama dengan kebijakan moneter, telah menstabilkan nilai tukar. Ini juga telah mendorong investor asing untuk berinvestasi di negara tersebut. Sebagai contoh, dua bank asing baru didirikan pada tahun 2005 dan 2006 ( Bank Mesir dan Emirates Bank ). Bank-bank ini telah datang dengan teknologi perbankan yang akan mendorong kompetisi dan dengan demikian akan berdampak pada pengenalan TI di SBI ( [ 7 ] CIA World Factbook , 2007). Pemerintah Sudan telah menganggarkan pendapatan pada masa mendatang untuk renovasi infrastruktur dan Multi - Donor Trust Fund ( MDTF ), yang dikelola oleh Bank Dunia ( WB ), diciptakan untuk mendukung proyek-proyek pengembangan bisnis, termasuk SBI ( [ 16 ] Administrasi Informasi Energi , 2007).
menciptakan iklim ketidakpastian dan rasa tidak aman, yang pada gilirannya akan mencegah baik lokal maupun investasi asing. Dengan demikian, kami berusaha untuk merancang sebuah studi yang akan memungkinkan kita untuk menganalisis pengaruh elemen berinteraksi pada pengembangan dan penggunaan teknologi baru di industri perbankan negara berkembang -dalam kasus kami, Sudan.
Penelitian : Pemikiran Dan Hipotesis Penelitian
Dalam menggambarkan pengalaman dan pengetahuan salah satu penulis, industri perbankan Sudan ( SBI ) adalah diidentifikasi sebagai industri yang memainkan peran penting dalam pembangunan ekonomi Sudan. SBI dipilih karena merupakan sektor paling diatur dibandingkan dengan sektor-sektor lain di Sudan. Secara umum, bank beroperasi dalam suatu sistem informasi yang kaya dimana lembaga keuangan sangat tergantung pada kegiatan TI untuk operasi sehari-hari mereka. Namun, dalam sektor perbankan di Sudan ada :
Pemanfaatan yang kurang dalam teknologi informasi berbasis komputer ;
Kurangnya pengetahuan dan pengalaman di antara manajer bank tentang waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk pelaksanaan sistem TI perbankan, dan
Kesenjangan antara pengenalan TI dan pelatihan staf .
Selain itu, terdapat perbedaan latar belakang dan kepentingan prioritas investasi antara manajer bank dan spesialis teknologi informasi, yang selanjutnya menghambat penyerapan dan pengenalan teknologi baru dalam SBI. Dengan demikian, tujuan utama dari penelitian ini adalah untuk menjelaskan proses teknologi dan perubahan di sektor perbankan Sudan, dan mengidentifikasi implikasi kebijakan untuk pengenalan dan penerapan TI di negara berkembang.
Selama desain penelitian, empat pertanyaan penelitian utama telah diidentifikasi yang membentuk desain kuesioner dan jadwal wawancara, sebagai berikut :
Bagaimana tingkat keterlibatan antara manajer umum dan manajer TI dalam penetapan strategi TI ?
Apa perbedaan utama dalam kepentingan / prioritas antara manajer Bank dan manajer TI dan seberapa jauh perbedaan ini diaktifkan atau dibatasi perubahan ?
Bagaimana tingkat keterlibatana manajer umum dan manajer TI dalam mengarahkan proses perubahan ?
Sampai sejauh mana kurangnya pengetahuan manajerial TI dan keterampilan mempengaruhi perubahan ?
H1 . Manajer umum tidak terlibat secara langsung dalam perencanaan strategi TI karena kurangnya pengetahuan IT dan persepsi mereka bahwa tugas ini adalah tanggung jawab manajer TI.
H2 . Perbedaan kepentingan dan prioritas antara manajer umum dan manajer TI bertindak sebagai penghalang untuk perubahan dalam SBI.
H3 . Manajer umum tidak memandang perubahan TI sebagai elemen kunci dari pekerjaan mereka dan ini akibatnya kurangnya keterlibatan mengganggu perubahan.
H4 . Kurangnya pengetahuan TI antara manajer umum bertindak sebagai penghalang untuk berubah dan menghambat proses perubahan.
Keempat hipotesis yang dibahas oleh sejumlah pertanyaan spesifik yang digunakan dalam campuran – metode Pendekatan yang melibatkan desain kuesioner dan pembangunan jadwal wawancara untuk pengumpulan data kualitatif. Sebagai contoh:
Apa alasan untuk mengadopsi, mengenalkan dan menerapkan TI di SBI ? Siapa yang memulai pengenalan dan penerapan TI di SBI ?
Apakah manajer memiliki pengetahuan yang diperlukan dan pemahaman TI untuk mendukung perubahan ?
Apa jenis TI yang diperkenalkan dan dilaksanakan di SBI ?
Mengapa TI diadopsi, diperkenalkan dan diimplementasikan dalam SBI sekarang ? Sampai sejauh mana SBI mematuhi arahan dari BOS dalam pelaksanaan IT ?
Apakah manajer memiliki keterlibatan langsung dalam perencanaan perubahan TI ? Apakah bank memiliki strategi untuk bergeser ke TI di SBI ?
Apa strategi manajemen untuk memperkenalkan dan menerapkan TI di SBI ? Masalah apa yang telah bank temui ketika memperkenalkan dan menerapkan TI ?
Apakah perbedaan latar belakang, kepentingan dan prioritas ada di antara manajer dan spesialis teknologi informasi ?
Apa sikap manajer terhadap mereka yang menolak perubahan ?
Dalam melakukan kerja lapangan di Sudan, desain untuk penelitian menggunakan metode campuran yang mencakup teknik kuantitatif dan kualitatif ( [ 10 ] Creswell , 2003; [ 3 ] Bryman , 2004). Sebuah kombinasi dari kuesioner selfadministered dan program wawancara semi - terstruktur yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data. Dalam desain, uji coba dan penggunaan akhir dari survei kuesioner menggunakan serangkaian pertanyaan pilihan ganda. Kuesioner diberikan kepada manajer umum dan manajer TI di SBI di kantor pusat mereka di Khartoum. Pertanyaan-pertanyaan meminta pendapat tentang isu-isu seperti:
Proses manajemen perubahan yang terlibat dalam memperkenalkan TI
Strategi yang diterapkan untuk mengelola perubahan TI di SBI , dan
Hambatan organisasi dan alasan penolakan terhadap perubahan.
SBI, pertemuan yang dilakukan dengan 18 bank termasuk Layanan Perbankan Elektronik Perusahaan (EBS) dan Bank of Sudan (BOS), telah mewakili 62 persen dari SBI. Data kualitatif ini akan dianalisis dengan serangkai rumusan tema dan sub-tema dan kemudian dianalisa tanggapannya pada set data ([38] Silverman, 2001). Kami juga mengidentifikasi sejumlah pelajaran dari EBS atau pengalaman BOS yang bisa disampaikan ke bank SBI lainnya, seperti bagaimana menciptakan kondisi kerja yang baik dan desain pembayaran gaji yang menarik dan mempertahankan karyawan yang berkualitas dan terampil di sana. Penelitian lapangan di Sudan dibatasi oleh waktu dan sumber daya keuangan yang terbatas, yang lebih parah adalah kesulitan akses yang tak terduga, meskipun riset multi-strategi yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini tidak terbukti efektif dalam menghasilkan data yang berguna. Namun, ada beberapa keterbatasan penelitian. Sebagai contoh, beberapa temuan survei mungkin telah dipengaruhi oleh data yang hilang dan beberapa data wawancara mungkin telah dipengaruhi oleh terjemahan dari bahasa Arab ke bahasa Inggris. Peneliti juga dibatasi oleh waktu, dukungan finansial dan sifat pekerjaan lapangan, seperti pengumpulan data sering tergantung pada hubungan pribadi peneliti dengan responden. Selain itu, tidak mungkin untuk menggeneralisasikan penelitian perbankan Sudan pada semua sektor perbankan di negara-negara berkembang, karena populasi mereka tidak homogen. Juga, membatasi penelitian pada satu industri terdepan (SBI) dapat membatasi kemampuan untuk menggeneralisasikan hasil penelitian untuk sektor usaha lain. Meskipun keterbatasan kuesioner dan wawancara dan kesulitan yang dihadapi selama periode pengumpulan data, metode ganda yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini, yang menggunakan kuesioner self-administered dan program wawancara semi terstruktur, terbukti efektif dalam mengumpulkan data yang berguna dalam menjawab pertanyaan penelitian. Metodologi campuran efektif dalam uji hipotesis dasar melalui penggunaan kuesioner survei, terbukti penting untuk bekerja dalam waktu kendala dan keterbatasan anggaran, dan berguna dalam mengumpulkan data yang penting dalam menjawab pertanyaan penelitian yang lebih kontekstual.
Ringkasan dari Kuesioner
ada memiliki pengalaman lebih pada manajerial perbankan, karena mereka lebih tua dari manajer TI/kepala departemen komputer.
Hasil penelitian kami juga mendukung hipotesis yang menyatakan manajer umum tidak memandang perubahan TI sebagai kunci dari pekerjaan mereka, dan keterbatasan ini yang berkendala pada proses perubahan. Data mengungkapkan bahwa manajer umum umumnya tidak memandang proses memperkenalkan dan menerapkan TI sebagai bagian dari peran mereka. Sebagai manajer, mereka menganggap bahwa isu IT/komputer harus didelegasikan kepada para pakar terkait seperti manajer TI. Selain itu, sejumlah pertanyaan terkait diidentifikasi dan diperiksa, termasuk:
- Keputusan untuk memperkenalkan teknologi baru; - Jenis peralatan dan sistem yang dibeli;
- Skala perubahan yang telah terjadi, dan
- Tingkat keterlibatan manajemen lokal dalam penyerapan dan implementasi sistem baru.
Hasil dari pertanyaan-pertanyaan ini mengungkapkan bahwa alasan utama untuk pengenalan dan penerapan TI di bank Sudan tidak hanya untuk menyediakan layanan perbankan yang lebih baik (46,2 persen), tetapi juga untuk mematuhi arahan dari BOS (29,7 persen). BOS didirikan oleh Departemen Teknologi Perbankan (BTD) berfokus pada penggagasan dan pelaksanaan proyek teknologi dalam SBI. BTD memainkan peran pengawasan dan regulasi bagi bank sentral di bidang IT, menyampaikan kebijakan dan arahan BOS pada TI untuk bank Sudan.
Hasil survei lain dari penelitian kami menyoroti bagaimana:
- Kebutuhan TI dimulai pada tingkat manajerial atas bank Sudan (manajer umum 31,1 persen, BOS 24,3 persen, dewan direksi 23,3 persen , manajer TI 19,4 persen , serikat buruh 1,9 persen), menunjukkan bahwa manajemen proses pengambilan keputusan perubahan adalah pendekatan top-down.
- Lebih dari sepertiga (19) dari responden percaya bahwa proses pengenalan perbankan IT sudah dimulai tapi belum sepenuhnya dilaksanakan, dan hampir duapertiga (31) dari responden percaya bahwa TI perbankan telah dilaksanakan di bank mereka. - “Layanan Online antar Cabang", menduduki peringkat teratas di antara layanan
perbankan elektronik internasional yang direncanakan untuk pengenalan dan implementasi, sedangkan "Layanan Kartu Kredit" mewakili layanan yang direncanakan untuk pengenalan dan implementasi di SBI.
- Lebih dari setengah dari bank Sudan menggunakan sistem TI perbankan dari vendor eksternal, dan vendor ini berpengaruh dalam membentuk praktek perbankan di sektor perbankan Sudan.
