2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Literature
Literature refers to compositions that tell stories, dramatize situations, express emotions, and analyze and advocates ideas. Before the invention of writing, literary works were necessarily spoken and sung, and were retained only as long as living people performed them. In some societies, the oral tradition of literature still exists, with many poems and stories designed exclusively for spoken delivery.
Literature is a body of written and valued as works of art. Literature may be classified according to a variety of systems, including language, national origin, historical period, genre and subject matter. Rees (1997:9) states that Literature is writing which express and communicates throught feelings and attitude towards life.
Edgar and Henry (1995:2) say that literature is the compositions that tell stories, dramatize situations, express emotions and analyze and advocates ideas. They also say that literature may be classified into four categories or genres:
1) Prose Fiction, 2) Poetry, 3) Drama, and 4) Nonfiction prose
Usually the first three are classed as imaginative literature.
Poetry expresses a conversation or interchange that is grounded in the most deeply felt experiences of human beings. Poetry exists in many formal and informal shapes, from the brief haiku to the extensive epic. More economical than prose fiction in its use of words, poetry relies heavily on imaginery, figurative language, and sound.
Drama is literature designed to be performed by actors. Like fiction, drama may focus on a single character of a small number of characters, and it enacts fictional events as if they were happening in the present, to be witnessed by an audience. Although most modern plays use prose dialogue, in the belief that dramatic speech should be as lifelike as possible, many plays from the past, like those of ancient greece and renaissance England, are in poetic form.
2.2 Defenition of Poetry
Poetry is an art form in which human language is used for its aesthetic qualities in addition to, or instead of, its notional and semantic content. It consists largely of oral or literary works in which language is used in a manner that is felt by its user and audience to differ from ordinary prose.
Poetry and poem describe a wide variety of spoken and written forms, styles, and patterns and also a wide variety of subjects. Because of variety, it is not possible to make a single, comprehensive definition.
Siswantoro (2002:1) says ”Gejala universal disepanjang sejarah peradaban manusia. Hampir tak ada satu bangsan pun didunia ini yang tidak tersentuh oleh puisi, mulai dari
bangsa primitif sampai bangsa yang paling beradab, puisi merupakan media untuk
mengkomunikasikan apa yang dirasakan, diamati dari lingkungan sekitarnya dan apa yang
ia khayalkan”.
Stanford (1992:63) says that the works of early poets were recited or sung: the audience gathered in groups and listened. These ancients settings suggest the important connection between the sound of a poem and the meaning it creates. More than any other qualities, rhythm and stuctural patterns distinguish poetry from prose.
Perrine(1974:553) says that poetry might be defined as a kind of language that says more and says it more intensenly than does ordinary language
2.3 Theme
Williem Kenney (1966:88) state that to put the matter simply, theme is the meaning of the story. But any experienced readers of fiction will realize that this is not a very informative definition, and even less experienced readers, upon thinking it over, may begin to wonder in what sense a story can mean anything. Our definition, then, is only a first step towards understanding what theme is. According to Burton (1968:12), theme is the main idea or the main point in a story. A theme must represent the whole part of the story, because theme is a basic development of a whole story. Actually, it is not easy to find out the theme in peotry. The reader has to read the poetry and understand what the story tells about.
Staton (2007:7) states that theme gives a strong explained about the unity of what is happening in the story, and tells about the story of life in a common context. The purpose of theme is to give a shape and effect in our mind, to make the story easy to remember. A good theme has to represent the entire story in the novel. Sometimes the theme shapes in to fact that comes from the human experience. It is explored by the story and then gives impression for each of event in life. The theme of the novel is more than its subject matter because an author’s technique can play as strong a rule in developing a theme as the action of the characters do. Sometimes it’s because of the lenght of novels and the various characters, conflicts, and scenes, found within them, reader can look at defferent aspects of the work to incover different interpretations of the meaning of the tale.
2.4 Sense
us about the poet’s innermost beaing as revealed in the work: we had the poem in order to learn about the figure behind it.
The second approach, and the one we shall be following throughout this section, concentrate on discussing the poem itself. The focus of our attention here is on the words on the page. Such an approach involves a very different conception of poetry from that outlined above: there the poet is regarded as an elusive, mysterious figure behind text; here the emphasis is on the poet as ‘a maker’.
An assessment is impossible to be done if the main rule is not complete yet, that is he deep understanding that is continued by analysing based on any kind of theory. Structural theories are used to appreciate a creation, is it sistematically or not. A creation could be assesed with ‘good’, ‘excellent’, or ‘great’, when the whole elements are completely perfect, the main aim of a poem. No useless words created by the poet, no word can stand alone out of the other elements, denotation or language manner, and the imagery aspect that is attended. At the same time the words are related to rhytme that substantiate sense dimension and repetition aspects (stanza, assonance, alliteration, and refrain) those are attended to form totally structure, music effect, and sense assertment.
2.5 Feeling
Feeling as its own meaning is what we feel, in this case is what the poet feels of something that become that become background in writing a poem. Feeling can be portrayed as happiness, sadness, horribility, hate, love or many else.
2.6 Tone
bragging, glleful, resigned or protesting. There are of course, many others. Every poem has a stone. The tone might be difficult to characterise, or you may be uncertain as to whether, for example a poem is serious or amusing, but if it is a poem it almost certainly must take up an attitude or lookout, or have a mood, voice or manner. Therefore, it is wise to discuss tone before all the other terms, whether they come from the technical or boarder human vocabulary.
Richard (1985:9) says that In the poetry we must decide what the tone is by attending to the words and tring to hear their tone. Once we feel we have picked up the tone, we can try reading the poem aloud to test out our judgement.
Peerine (1974:702) says that tone in literature may be defined the writer’s or speaker’s attitude toward is subject, his audience of himself. In addition to, Siswantoro (2002:115) by a poem a poet can express his/her internal personality to the external world in responsing every problem around him/her. It could be well manner, friendly, but it also could be hate, contemplative, fierce, or apathetic tone. A poet with the whole of her/his extraordinary ability expresses those feelings in a poem
The tone of a poem is roughly equivalent to the mood it creates in the reader. Think of an actor reading a line such as "I could kill you." He can read it in a few different ways: If he thinks the proper tone is murderous anger, he might scream the line and cause the veins to bulge in his neck. He might assume the tone of cool power and murmur the line in a low, even voice. Perhaps he does not mean the words at all and laughs as he says them.
poem depressing, that may be because it contains shadowy imagery. Tone is not in any way divorced from the other elements of poetry; it is directly dependent on them..
2.7 Intention
Intention is certain feelings of the readers when reading a poem. A poem conveys an experience or attempts to arouse certain feelings of the readers. After reading a whole poem and then write the general meaning and the detailed meaning, so next step is deciding what feelings the poet is trying to arouse in the readers. A poem may affect different people in a great variety of ways and it is often impossible to define a poet’s true intentions, however, the most important thing is to understand and explain a poet’s purpose to be. Just as it is impossible to give the meaning of a poem without reading it carefully, it is impossible to appreciate the poem if unable.
2.8 Life sense
Life sense is an important part in the poem elements. Life sense may be devided into three parts. They are solidarity (Altruism), teror, and love
1. Solidarity (Altruism): Helping others
2. Terror
Terror means feeling of extreme fear. It could be person, thing or situation that makes people very afraid. Meanwhile, terrorism is a term that is usually used in violence for political purpose.
One of the oddities of the ‘War on Terror’ is that there remains no clear, universally agreed-upon definiton of its key referent, terorosm. Not with standing such inderterminacy, the term operates doubly in a descriptive and prescriptive capacity. Terrism both describes a form (illegitimate) political violence and a primary justification for (legitimate) political violence. In the context of the ‘War on Terror’, connotations of epic and indiscriminate brutality accrue to that political violence branded terrorsm, while its purported opposite is held to be limited by the humane values of states united in opposition to terrorsism.
3. Love
It’s been known that the feeling of love is not directly come to a person. It needs process until we find that is love. The first we feel before we fall in love is the feeling of like. Why do we like some people more than others? Basically, research shows that we are attracted to people who bring us maximum rewards of gratification at minimum expense. For example, we are more attracted to people who are nearby to those who are further away.
In saying the word love, peopl can interpret it in many ways or different meanings. Research indentify ways that people commonly define love. These love styles are idealized types; each individuals may define love in a way that combines more than one style.
2.9 Rhyme
the structure of a poem. When two subsequent lines rhyme, it is likely that they are thematically linked, or that the next set of rhymed lines signifies a slight departure. Especially in modern poetry, for which conventions aren't as rigidly determined as they were during the English Renaissance or in the eighteenth century, rhyme can indicate a poetic theme or the willingness to structure a subject that seems otherwise chaotic. Rhyme works closely with meter in this regard.
There are varieties of rhyme: internal rhyme functions within a line of poetry, for example, while the more common end rhyme occurs at the end of the line and at the end of some other line, usually within the same stanza if not in subsequent lines. There are true rhymes (bear, care) and slant rhymes (lying, mine). There are also a number of predetermined
rhyme schemes associated with different forms of poetry. Once you have identified a rhyme scheme, examine it closely to determine (1) how rigid it is, (2) how closely it conforms to a predetermined rhyme scheme (such as a sestina), and especially (3) what function it serves 2.10 Types of Poetry
Although not all poems fit neatly into categories, the two major types of poems are narrative and lyric. Narrative poems tell stories. They often present a significant episode or series of episodes in the life of one primary character(or, sometimes, two primary characters). Lyric poems express the feelings, musings, or emotions of a single character (the speaker).
Narrative poetry examples of narrative poems include long epics (such as Homer’s Iliad or Milton’s Paradise Lost) as well as short ballads. Nearly all narrative poems stress action and suggest a conflict. Many focus on a moral choice or difficult decision. For examples of modern narrative poems, by William Stafford’s travelling through the dark, Seamus Heaney’s, Mid-term Break and Amy lowell’s, patterns.
may depict an outward action, it generally focuses on inward reactions, insights, or responses. Lyric poems are written in many forms, including Italian (or petrarchan) sonnet. The italian sonnet is divided into two parts, an octave (eight lines) with the rhyme abbaabba and a sestet (sis lines) with the rhyme scheme cdecde (or some variation). The octave usually develops an idea or image, and the sestet comments on this idea or image.
English (or Shakespearean) sonnet. The English sonnet falls into three quatrains (four lines) and a concluding couplet (two lines). The rhyme scheme is abab cdcd efef gg. The first three quatrains usually develop an idea or image, and the closing couplet comments on this idea or image.
A lyric poem is also a comparatively short, non-narrative poem in which a single speaker presents a state of mind or an emotional state. Lyric poetry retains some of the elements of song which is said to be its origin: For Greek writers the lyric was a song accompanied by the lyre.
Subcategories of the lyric are, for example elegy, ode, sonnet and dramatic monologue and most occasional poetry: In modern usage, elegy is a formal lament for the death of a particular person (for exampleIn Memoriam A.H.H.). More broadly defined, the term elegy is also used for solemn meditations, often on questions of death, such asElegy Written in a Country Churchyard.
or of (usually) fourteen lines and an intricate rhyme pattern (s wrote a series of sonnets linked by the same theme, so-called sonnet cycles (for instance Petrarch, various stages of a love relationship.
In a dramatic monologue a speaker, who is explicitly someone other than the author, makes a speech to a silent auditor in a specific situation and at a critical moment. Without intending to do so, the speaker reveals aspects of his temperament and character. In My Last Duchess for instance, the Duke shows the picture of his last wife to the emissary from his prospective new wife and reveals his excessive pride in his position and his jealous temperament. Occasional poetry is written for a specific occasion: a wedding (then it is called an epithalamion, for instanceEpithalamion), the return of a king from exile (for instancAnnus Mirabilis) or a death (for examplLycidas), etc. 2.11 How to Read a Poem
Carefully, thoughtfully, and sympathetically. These words sum up the best approach to reading poetry. The economy and compression of poetry mean that every part of the poem must carry some of the impact and meaning, and thus every part repays careful attention. Try to interact with the poem. Do not expect the poem to do all the work.
In addition to these, read each poem more than once and keep in mind the following objectives:
1) Rad straight through to get a general sense of the poem.
2) Try to understand the poem’s meaning and organization. As you read and reread the poem, study the following:
a) The Title. The title is almost informative.
c) The Meaning of All Words, Whether Familiar or Unfamiliar. The words in many poems are immediately clear.
d) The Poem’s Setting and Situation. Some poems establish their setting and circumstances vividly.
e) The Poem’s Basic Form and Development.
f) The Poem’s Subject and Theme. The subject indicates the general or specific topic, while the theme refers to the idea or ideas that the poem explores
g) Read the poem aloud, sounding each word clearly.
