Directory UMM :Data Elmu:jurnal:E:Environmental Management and Health:Vol.07.Issue4.1996:

(1)

Assessment of total human exposure to lead

and cadmium

M aja Blanu˘sa

De partme nt o f Mine ral Me tabo lis m, Ins titute fo r Me dic al Re s e arc h and Oc c upatio nal He alth, Z agre b, Cro atia

Presents the principles of analytical methods, environ-mental monitoring, biological monitoring and direct human exposure assessment of lead and cadmium. Illustrates each research area, by giving the results obtained from studies carried out in the Croatian region and per-formed within the Institute of Medical Research and Occu-pational Health in Zagreb. Also presents the results obtained for lead and cad-mium in non-polluted rural, urban and polluted industrial areas. Considers two main environmental media – air and food – when evaluating human exposure, intake and absorption of lead and cad-mium. Compares results obtained in this region to reported European and global data.

Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth

7 / 4 [1996] 2 3 –2 8 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0956-6163]

Introduction

H igh er con cen t r a t ion s of lea d a n d ca d m iu m in t h e en v ir on m en t d es er ve a t t en t ion d u e t o t h eir im p a ct on h ea lt h a n d h u m a n lon gev it y. To m a k e a fu ll a ss es sm en t of t h e p ollu t ion p r oces s a n d effect s, t h e seq u en ce of even t s fr om em iss ion of t h e p ollu t a n t , t r a n sp or t a n d t r a n sfor m a t ion in t h e en v ir on m en t , t o h u m a n exp osu r e a n d im p a ct on h u m a n h ea lt h m u s t b e con sid er ed .

M on it or in g of en v ir on m en t a l p ollu t ion r ela t es m a in ly t o id en t ifi ca t ion of s ou r ces a n d a s ses s m en t of p ollu t ion levels. T h is a p p r oa ch is ver y oft en con n ect ed w it h st u d ies of t r a n s p or t p a t h w ay s a n d im p a ct on va r iou s or ga n -ism s t o a s s es s h u m a n r is k . T h e p u r p ose of b iologica l m on it or in g is t o id en t ify a n d p r e-ven t a dver se h ea lt h effect . T h ese t wo a s p ect s a r e ver y clos ely con n ect ed . T h e con t r ol a n d s u r veilla n ce of en v ir on m en t a l exp os u r e t o t oxic elem en t s a r e n eces s a r y t o p r even t h a z-a r d ou s z-a b s or p t ion levels. Ach iev in g t h is goz-a l by collect ion of sp ecim en s for b iologica l m on -it or in g h a s b ecom e a n im p or t a n t s u p p lem en t . Bes id es s u r veilla n ce-t y p e a ss ay s of h u m a n blood , d iet a r y or ot h er en v ir on m en t a l sa m -p les a n d m ea su r em en t of en zy m e or m et a b o-lit e levels m ay occa sion a lly b e s u b st it u t ed a s s p ecifi c in d ica t or s of m et a l con cen t r a t ion s in t h e b ody [1].

In d ir ect m et h od s of h u m a n exp osu r e a s ses s m en t in volve d a ily a ct iv it ies a n d food con s u m p t ion . F r om a ir p ollu t ion a n d food con t a m in a t ion d a t a , m a t h em a t ica l m od ellin g of d a ily in t a k e of t oxic elem en t s t h r ou gh a ir a n d food is p os sible. T h e d ir ect m et h od of h u m a n exp osu r e a ss es sm en t t o p ollu t a n t in volves h igh ly m ot iva t ed volu n t eer s t o ca r r y ou t p er s on a l sa m p lin g of a ir a n d collect ion of d u p lica t e d iet s. Su ch st u d ies a r e d ifficu lt t o ca r r y ou t on la r ge p op u la t ion gr ou p s d u e t o p r oblem s in ob t a in in g a n a d eq u a t e n u m b er of m ot iva t ed su b ject s. How ever, s t u d ies on sm a ll p op u la t ion gr ou p s ca r r ied ou t a s a p ilot p r o-ject cou ld p os sibly give in s igh t in t o t h e level of h u m a n exp os u r e t h r ou gh d iffer en t m ed ia .

Biologica l in d ica t or s of exp osu r e, com p le-m en t a r y t o exp os u r e a s s es sle-m en t le-m et h od s, in clu d e s a m p lin g a n d a n a ly sis of b ody fl u id s (blood , u r in e, sw ea t , m ilk ), h a ir, n a ils a n d / or d ecid u ou s t eet h . P os t -m or t em h u m a n or ga n

sa m p lin g a n d a n a ly s is is a lso a w ay of a ssess-in g n or m a l p op u la t ion exp osu r e level a n d it s h ea lt h im p a ct . By a n a ly sin g q u a n t it y of t oxic m et a l in a t a r get or ga n , i.e. b ody, life exp osu r e of a p ollu t a n t ca n b e est im a t ed . F r om t h ese r ecor d s, t h e r a n ge of h u m a n exp os u r e in a p op u la t ion ca n b e a n a ly sed t o ca lcu la t e t h e n u m b er s a t r isk a n d id en t ify a n y s ect ion s of t h e com m u n it y in p a r t icu la r d a n ger.

Cr oa t ia , a s a d evelop in g cou n t r y, h a s a sp ecifi c p osit ion a m on g ot h er E u r op ea n cou n -t r ies b eca u se of i-t s ver y s low a n d d ifficu l-t a d a p t a t ion t o t h e u se of u n lea d ed ga solin e. Du e t o h igh u r b a n t r a ffic d en s it y lea d in t h e a ir is h igh er com p a r ed t o ot h er w est er n E u r o-p ea n cit ies. Air lea d a s w ell a s lea d in food a n d d r in k s a r e t h e m a in s ou r ce of Cr oa t ia n p op u la t ion n or m a l exp osu r e t o lea d . Ca d -m iu -m in t a k e or igin a t es -m a in ly fr o-m food a n d fr om ciga r et t e s m ok e in t h e s m ok in g p op u la -t ion . Mor eover, Cr oa -t ia h a s h a d sever a l r e gion s d eva st a t ed d u r in g t h e Ser b ia n a ggr es sion of 1991. T h e im p a ct of m a n y s h ellin g a n d a m m u n it ion st ock p ile exp los ion los on h eav y m et a l p ollu t ion of en v ir on -m en t a r e st ill u n k n ow n . T h is a s p ect of en v i-r on m en t a l p ollu t ion a n d it s im p a ct on h u m a n h ea lt h r em a in s t o b e exp lor ed .

Analytical methods and quality

control (QC)

T h e m os t com m on a n d w id esp r ea d m et h od for lea d a n d ca d m iu m q u a n t it a t ive a n a ly sis in va r iou s b iologica l sa m p les is fl a m e a t om ic a b sor p t ion s p ect r om et r y (FAAS) or

(2)

Maja Blanu˘s a

Asse ssme nt o f to tal human e xpo sure to le ad and c admium

7 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 3 –2 8

lea d a n d ca d m iu m ca r r ied ou t eit h er by FAAS or E TAAS s h ou ld b e d on e by cor r ect ion of n on -a t om ic a b sor p t ion (d eu t er iu m or Zeem a n ).

On e of t h e m os t im p or t a n t p a r t s of a n a ly t i-ca l p r oced u r e is q u a lit y a ss u r a n ce, w h ich sh ow s t h e d e gr ee of r elia b ilit y a n d a ccu r a cy of t h e a p p lied m et h od . If t h e m et h od m eet s cer t a in cr it er ia , it s r es u lt s ca n b e r elia bly com p a r ed w it h r es u lt s d on e in ot h er la b or a t o-r ies a n d / oo-r cou n t o-r ies. T h e o-r efeo-r en ce m a t eo-r ia l r esu lt s fr om a sp ecifi c la b or a t or y a r e com -p a r ed w it h in t er n a t ion a l r efer en ce va lu es by a s t a t ist ica l t est . T h e t es t com p a r es r e gr es -sion p lot s of r efer en ce a n d la b or a t or y r es u lt s a n d in d ica t es t h e m a xim u m a cce p t a ble d ev ia -t ion fr om -t h e r efer en ce r e gr es s ion . To illu s-t r a s-t e s-t h e n eces sis-t y of s-t h e q u a lis-t y con s-t r ol, a n exa m p le of p oss ible er r or in t r od u ct ion in t h e a n a ly t ica l p r oced u r e of lea d d et er m in a t ion is d es cr ib ed in r efer en ce[2]. T h e a n a ly sis of lea d in a d u p lica t e d iet by E TAAS w a s d on e in r efer en ce sa m p les a ft er a sh in g in p or cela in a n d in q u a r t z cr u cibles. Res u lt s ob t a in ed w er e r ela t ed t o r efer en ce va lu es. Lea d r es u lt s w er e n ot w it h in t h e a cce p t a ble in t er va l w h en sa m p les w er e a sh ed in p or cela in . How ever, ca d m iu m con cen t r a t ion s fou n d in t h e s a m e food s a m p les y ield ed a cce p t a ble r es u lt s a ft er a s h in g in p or cela in . Ca d m iu m a n d lea d in fa eca l s a m p les a ft er a sh in g in p or cela in gave a cce p t a ble r es u lt s. T h e d iffer en ce in lea d r ea ct ion w it h p or cela in cr u cible b et w een t wo b iologica l m a t r ices, food a n d fa eces, s h ow s t h a t t h e con cen t r a t ion of lea d in t h e b iologi-ca l s a m p le, ch em iiologi-ca l for m , a n d p r ob a b ly a lso t h e con cen t r a t ion of ot h er com p on en t s of t h e m a t r ix s h ou ld b e con sid er ed in a n a ly sin g m et a l con t en t in b iologica l m a t er ia l.

A r elia ble s y st em for m a in t a in in g a h igh q u a lit y of a n a ly t ica l p er for m a n ce is ess en -t ia l. T h er efor e, -t h e p r oced u r es u s ed -t o en s u r e q u a lit y con t r ol, a lon g w it h es t im a t es of a ccu -r a cy a n d t h e p -r ecis ion of d a t a , s h ou ld b e in clu d ed w h en r e p or t in g r es u lt s.

Environmental monitoring

E n v ir on m en t a l m on it or in g is gen er a lly con sid er ed a s t h e m on it or in g of a ir or a t m os -p h er e. Wh en lea d a n d ca d m iu m a r e s t u d ied , food is eq u a lly a s im p or t a n t a s a ir, s in ce t h es e a r e t wo m a in en v ir on m en t a l m ed ia t h r ou gh w h ich lea d a n d ca d m iu m en t er s in t o t h e b ody.

It is es t im a t ed t h a t 80-90 p er cen t of lea d in a m b ien t a ir d er ives fr om t h e com bu s t ion of lea d ed p et r ol. Ba selin e levels of lea d in t h e a t m os p h er e b efor e t h e in d u s t r ia l a ge a r e es t im a t ed t o b e in t h e r a n ge of 5×10–5µ_{g/ m}3_[3]. H u m a n a ct iv it ies h ave r a is ed t h is con cen t r a -t ion in -t h e a ir con sid er a bly. In u r b a n a r ea s

t h e d e gr ee of p ollu t ion fr om com bu st ion of lea d ed p et r ol d iffer s fr om cou n t r y t o cou n t r y d e p en d in g on m ot or veh icle d en sit y a n d t h e efficien cy of effor t s t o r ed u ce t h e lea d con t en t of p et r ol. In n on -u r b a n sit es, loca t ed n ea r u r b a n a r ea s, a ir lea d levels aver a ge a r ou n d 0.5 µg/ m3_{, w h ile in r u r a l a r ea s, levels b et w een} 0.1 a n d 0.3 µg/ m3

a r e fou n d . In m ost E u r op ea n cit ies a n n u a l m ea n s a r e in t h e r a n ge of 0.5 t o 3.0 µg/ m3

[3]. How ever, ow in g t o d ecr ea ses in t h e lea d con t en t of p et r ol, t h er e is a t r en d t ow a r d s low er a ir lea d va lu es. T h e cit y of Za gr eb ’s gen er a l p op u la t ion exp osu r e st u dy ca r r ied ou t d u r in g 1972 gave va lu es of 1.0 t o 2.6 µg/ m3

. An ot h er st u dy p er for m ed in Za gr eb in t h e w in t er of 1987 by d ir ect p er -son a l m ea su r em en t s of t h e b r ea t h in g zon e a ir r esu lt ed in con cen t r a t ion s of 0.140-0.840 µg/ m3_{a s sh ow n in Ta ble I. H ow ever, w it h in} t h e sa m e st u dy, t h e con cen t r a t ion s of lea d ob t a in ed in t h e St ock h olm b r ea t h in g zon e a ir w er e 0.042-0.094 µg/ m3_{[4]. T h ese sign ifi ca n t ly} low er va lu es com p a r ed t o t h ose in Za gr eb cou ld b e exp la in ed by t h e h igh er u se of u n lea d ed p et r ol in St ock h olm veh icles.

T h e m in in g a n d sm elt in g of lea d or es cr ea t e p ollu t ion of t h e su r r ou n d in g a ir a n d soil. P ollu t ion d e p en d s on t h e a m ou n t of lea d em it -t ed , -t h e h eigh -t of -t h e s-t a ck , -t op ogr a p h y a n d ot h er loca l con d it ion s. Mea su r em en t s of a ir lea d con cen t r a t ion s p er for m ed in t h e lea d sm elt er y in Me ˘za va lley (Re p u blic of Slove-n ia ) iSlove-n 1972 s h ow ed h igh a ir lea d p ollu t ioSlove-n , b et w een 14 a n d 26 µg/ m3_{(Ta ble I). Aft er t h a t} p er iod , a n efficien t p ollu t ion con t r ol w a s p er for m ed by in t r od u cin g a n elect r ost a t ic fi lt er in t h e sa m e sm elt er y. In 1988 t h e a ir lea d con cen t r a t ion w a s low er ed t o 0.17-1.97 in t h e s u m m er a n d 0.38-2.76 µg/ m3

in t h e w in t er p er iod [5].

(3)

Maja Blanu˘s a

7 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 3 –2 8

a n d 2. Con s eq u en t ly, t h e d a ily d iet a r y in t a k e of t h e loca l p op u la t ion , eva lu a t ed by d u p lica t e d iet s a m p lin g m et h od , w a s s u b s t a n t ia lly h igh er t h a n in con t r ol r e gion s. It r a n ged fr om 13 t o 572 µg/ d ay [8].

Ca d m iu m in a ir or igin a t es m a in ly fr om t h e st eel in d u s t r y, w a st e in cin er a t ion , volca n ic a ct ion a n d zin c p r od u ct ion . Con cen t r a t ion s r e p or t ed in E u r op ea n r u r a l a ir r a n ged fr om < 1 t o 5 n g/ m3

, in u r b a n a r ea s 5-15 n g/ m3 a n d 15-50 n g/ m3

in in d u st r ia l a r ea s[3]. T h e r a n ge of va lu es, ob t a in ed by m ea su r em en t s of b r ea t h in g zon e a ir in Za gr eb in 1987, w a s 1.7-9.9 n g/ m3_{. In t h e lea d s m elt er y a r ea t h e low est} ca d m iu m va lu e in s u m m er a n d t h e h igh es t in w in t er 1988 w a s 2.0 a n d 18.9 n g/ m3

r es p ec-t ively (Ta ble I).

T h e d ir ect in p u t of ca d m iu m in t o a r a ble s oils or igin a t es m a in ly fr om p h os p h a t e fer t il-izer s or m u n icip a l sew a ge slu d ge[9]. T h e d a ily in t a k e of ca d m iu m v ia food is m u ch h igh er t h a n by a ir. In E u r op ea n cou n t r ies a n d in N or t h Am er ica t h e aver a ge in t a k e of 10-30 µg/ d ay is r e p or t ed [3]. In t h e Cr oa t ia n r u r a l con t r ol r e gion a r a n ge of ca d m iu m con cen t r a -t ion in ve ge-t a bles of 3-283 µg/ k g fr es h w eigh t w a s ob t a in ed [7]. In lea d s m elt er y a r ea s it w a s 37-440 µg/ k g[6] (F igu r es 1 a n d 2). In t h e Za gr eb a r ea va lu es of ca d m iu m d a ily in t a k e b et w een 3.5-18.6 µg/ d ay w er e ob t a in ed by d u p lica t e d iet m et h od a n d va lu es of b et w een 5.0-25 µg/ d ay by fa eca l elim in a t ion m et h od [7]. In t h e lea d s m elt er y a r ea d a ily in t a k e of ca d m iu m ob t a in ed by t h e d u p lica t e d iet s a m -p lin g m et h od w a s 3.6-22.8 µg[8], t h is b ein g

w it h in t h e sa m e r a n ge a s in t h e Za gr eb u r b a n a r ea .

Biological monitoring of

exposure indicators

Sy st em a t ic sa m p lin g a n d a n a ly sis of h u m a n or ot h er b iologica l sp ecim en s m ay h elp gr ea t ly in u n d er st a n d in g t h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een exp osu r e t o t oxic elem en t s a n d h ea lt h h a za r d s. Biologica l m on it or in g ca n est a blish r efer en ce b a selin es of p ollu t a n t con cen t r a t ion s in h u m a n b ein gs a n d p r ov id e ea r ly w a r n in g of in cr ea sin g levels. In a d d i-t ion , b iologica l m on ii-t or in g ca n m a k e exisi-t in g en v ir on m en t a l (p h y sica l a n d ch em ica l) m on it or in g sy sit em s m or e cos it effecit ive by esit a b -lis h in g d ir ect or in d ir ect lin k s t o h u m a n s. P ollu t a n t con cen t r a t ion s fou n d in h u m a n b ein gs ca n b e r ela t ed t o sou r ces of en v ir on -m en t a l con t a -m in a t ion , a n d t h e p op u la t ion r is k ca n b e d efi n ed . T h e effect iven ess of con -t r ol m ea su r es m ay b e a ss essed -t h r ou gh p er i-od ica l b iologica l m on it or in g t h a t w ill d et ect ch a n ges in levels of p ollu t a n t s in m a n . As lea d is ver y ea sily d e p osit ed in ca lcifi ed t is-su es, t oot h lea d level is a r e p r esen t a t ive a n d r elia ble in d ica t or of cu m u la t ive lon g-t er m exp os u r e t o lea d . T h er efor e, m on it or in g of lea d in t eet h , t oget h er w it h som e ot h er b io-logica l p a r a m et er s, wou ld give in sigh t in t o lea d b ody bu r d en a n d h ea lt h effect s. Sin ce ch ild r en p r es en t a h igh -r is k p op u la t ion gr ou p in r esp ect t o lea d exp osu r e, a n in t er n a t ion a l st u dy on “Biologica l in d ica t or s of lea d n eu r o-t oxicio-t y in ch ild r en ” w a s sp on s or ed by WH O/ CE C in 1985. Wit h in t h is s t u dy lea d in d ecid u ou s t eet h w a s d et er m in ed in ch ild r en r esid in g n ea r lea d sm elt er ies in t h e Re p u blic of Sloven ia . Ra n ges of con cen t r a t ion s ob t a in ed w er e 3.5-12.5 m g/ k g (n = 9) in t h e con t r ol a r ea a n d 5.0-85.1 (n = 40) in t h e sm elt er y a r ea . Lea d b ody bu r d en d e p en d ed on t h e h om e d ist a n ce fr om t h e sm elt er y. By r ela t in g sever a l p a r a m et er s (zin c, cop p er, ir on , r esid en ce, a sh a n d a ge) in fa ct or a n a ly -sis, lea d con cen t r a t ion in d ecid u ou s t eet h w a s closely r ela t ed w it h con cen t r a t ion of zin c a n d r esid en t ia l d ist a n ce[10]. T h es e r esu lt s in d ica t ed t h a t d ecid u ou s t eet h m igh t b e a good in d ica t or of en v ir on m en t a l exp osu r e t o sever a l t r a ce elem en t s.

Du r in g t h e 1980s m on it or in g of ca d m iu m in h u m a n k id n ey cor t ex in Za gr eb w a s

p er for m ed w it h in t h e UN E P / WH O P r oject on “Ass essm en t of H u m a n E xp osu r e t o P ollu -t a n -t s -t h r ou gh Biologica l Mon i-t or in g”. In 50 sa m p les of p ost -m or t em k id n ey sa m p les fr om t h e Za gr eb a r ea , a geom et r ic m ea n of 24.2 m g Cd / k g w et w eigh t of k id n ey cor t ex w a s ob t a in ed . Wit h in t h e sa m e s t u dy p er for m ed Table I

Air le ad and c admium e xpo s ure mo nito ring o f diffe re nt po pulatio n gro ups (data fro m [5 ])

Number of M ethod, year of

subjects Range measurement, area

Pb 1 .0 -2 .6 Population exposure, 1 9 7 2

(µg/ m3₎ _{Z agreb}

1 7 0 .1 4 -0 .8 4 (w) Personal exposurea, 1 9 8 7 Z agreb

1 4 -2 6 Population exposure, 1 9 7 2 lead smelter

1 5 0 .3 8 -2 .7 6 (w) Individual exposureb, 1 9 8 8 1 0 0 .1 7 -1 .9 7 (s) lead smelter

Cd 1 7 1 .7 -9 .9 Personal exposurea_{, 1 9 8 7}

(ng/ m3) Z agreb

1 5 3 .7 -1 8 .9 (w) Individual exposureb_{, 1 9 8 8}

1 0 2 .0 – 1 1 .2 (s) lead smelter

Notes:

a = direc t measurement:

(4)

Maja Blanu˘s a

7 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 3 –2 8

in eigh t d iffer en t cou n t r ies, t h e low es t va lu e of 9.0 m g/ k g (n = 42) w a s r e p or t ed in In d ia a n d t h e h igh est 56.2 m g/ k g (n = 50) in J a p a n [11]. Con cen t r a t ion s of ca d m iu m in t h e k id n ey cor t ex of n on -s m ok er s a n d sm ok er s in Za gr eb w er e 12.9 (n = 20) a n d 39.5 (n = 31), r esp ect ively [12]. Ca d m iu m , t oget h er w it h ot h er p a r a m et er s s u ch a s zin c a n d cop p er con cen t r a t ion s, h ist op a t h ology, s m ok in g h a b it s a n d a ge, w er e st a t is t ica lly r ela t ed by m ea n s of fa ct or a n a ly sis. T h e r es u lt s s h ow ed t h a t s m ok in g h a b it s, a n d ca d m iu m a n d zin c levels, w er e clea r ly a s socia t ed in on e fa ct or, sh ow in g t h e p oss ible h ea lt h -r ela t ed im p a ct of en h a n ced ca d m iu m b ody bu r d en .

Exposure assessment – personal

sampling method

T h e m et h od of a sses sm en t of t ot a l h u m a n exp os u r e t o lea d a n d ca d m iu m t h r ou gh a ir a n d food is d escr ib ed t o illu st r a t e a m od el of d ir ect h u m a n exp osu r e eva lu a t ion . T h e st u dy w a s ca r r ied ou t w it h in t h e WH O/ UN DP p ilot p r ogr a m m e p er for m ed sim u lt a n eou sly in sever a l ot h er cou n t r ies [4]. T h e p u r p ose of t h e p r ogr a m m e w a s t o im p r ove t h e r elia b ilit y of d a t a ob t a in ed in d iffer en t cou n t r ies a n d t o p r ov id e t h e b a sic d a t a en a blin g exp osu r es in a given p op u la t ion t o b e d et er m in ed . T h e fi r st p h a se of t h e p r oject con sist ed of a n a ly t ica l

µg/ g dry we ight µ

µg/ kg we t we ight

1 0

8

6

4

2

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 5 0

Distanc e fro m the sme lte r, km

Key

Eac h c o lumn = me an o f 2 -4 value s Cadmium

(d) 4 0 0

3 5 0 3 0 0 2 5 0 2 0 0 1 5 0 1 0 0 5 0 0 µ

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 5 0

L

P C

O

L P

O L

P C

O L

PCO

Cadmium (b)

g/ g dry we ight 3 0

2 0

1 0

2

1 .5

1

0 .5

0

mg/ kg we t we ight

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 5 0

L P

C

O L

P

O

L

P

C

O LPCO

2 ,0 0 0

1 ,5 0 0

1 ,0 0 0

5 0 0

0 µ

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 5 0

Co ntro l are a

Key

Eac h c o lumn = me an o f 2 -4 value s Le ad

(a)

Le ad (c )

Co ntro l are a

Key

L P

= Le ttuc e = Parsle y

C O

= Carro ts = Onio ns Eac h c o lumn = me an o f 2 -3 value s

Key

L P

= Le ttuc e = Parsle y

C O

= Carro ts = Onio ns Eac h c o lumn = me an o f 2 -3 value s

Figure 1

(5)

Maja Blanu˘s a

7 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 3 –2 8

t r a in in g a n d t h e s econ d con sis t ed of a p ilot exp os u r e m on it or in g s t u dy for P b a n d Cd in clu d in g a n ext en s ive q u a lit y con t r ol com p o-n eo-n t . T h e exp er ieo-n ce ga io-n ed io-n t h e q u a lit y con t r ol p r ogr a m m e sh ow ed t h a t good a n a ly t i-ca l p er for m a n ce for on e t y p e of m ed iu m w a s n o gu a r a n t ee of good a n a ly t ica l r es u lt s w it h ot h er t y p es of m ed ia . E xp osu r e m on it or in g w a s ca r r ied ou t in 1988 on a sm a ll gr ou p of 17 n on sm ok in g wom en in Za gr eb. T h e m on it or -in g -in clu d ed m ea su r em en t of t h e -in t a k e of t h e t wo m et a ls v ia a ir a n d d iet d u r in g a p er iod of seven d ay s. Du p lica t e d a ily d iet s a n d a ir fi lt er sa m p les w er e collect ed by p er son a l s a m p lin g m et h od for a n a ly sis of lea d a n d ca d m iu m . To

ch eck t h e in t a k e of lea d a n d ca d m iu m w it h t h e d a ily d iet , fa eces w a s collect ed a n d a n a ly sed . T h e m ea n ga st r oin t est in a l a b sor p -t ion w a s es-t im a -t ed -t o b e 4.9 µg/ d ay for lea d a n d 0.75 µg/ d ay for ca d m iu m . T h ese va lu es w er e d er ived fr om fa eca l d a t a a ssu m ed t o b e m or e r elia ble. T h e d a ily a b s or p t ion t h r ou gh in h a la t ion est im a t ed on t h e b a sis of a ir w a s 2.7 µg for lea d a n d 0.03 µg for ca d m iu m [13].

A sligh t ly m od ifi ed m et h od of exp osu r e a ssess m en t t o lea d a n d ca d m iu m w a s a p p lied in t h e lea d s m elt er y a r ea [8]. Lea d a n d ca d m iu m in t a k e a n d a b s or p t ion d a t a w er e ca lcu -la t ed fr om m icr o-en v ir on m en t a l a ir m ea su r e-m en t s a n d fr oe-m d u p lica t e d iet s over on e w eek

µg/ kg we t we ight 1 6 0

1 4 0

1 2 0 1 0 0 8 0

6 0 4 0

2 0 0

µ

1 2 5 1 5 0

Co ntro l are a

Distanc e fro m the sme lte r, km Le ad

1 0

8

6

4

2

0

µg/ kg we t we ight

1 2 5 1 5 0

Distanc e fro m the sme lte r, km Cadmium

µ

Co ntro l are a

Note: Numbe r o f sample s take n at: 1 km

2 km = 1 8 = 1 8

5 km 1 5 0 km (c o ntro l are a)

= 1 4 = 1 1 9

Note: Numbe r o f sample s take n at: 1 km

2 km = 1 8 = 1 8

5 km 1 5 0 km (c o ntro l are a)

= 1 4 = 1 1 9

Figure 2

(6)

Maja Blanu˘s a

7 / 4 [1 9 9 6 ] 2 3 –2 8

in w in t er a n d on e in s u m m er. M ea n a b sor p -t ion of lea d -t h r ou gh a ir in su b jec-t s fr om -t h e sm elt er y a r ea w a s 6.8 µg/ d ay (r a n ge 1.7-19.7) a n d fr om food a n d b ever a ges 10.9 µg/ d ay (r a n ge 1.3-57.2). Alt h ou gh w it h in w id e r a n ges, r ela t ive con t r ibu t ion of lea d in t a k e t h r ou gh food (a n d b ever a ges) w a s con sid er a ble. T h e ca lcu la t ed m ea n a b sor p t ion for ca d m iu m t h r ou gh in h a la t ion a n d in ges t ion w a s 0.04 (r a n ge 0.02-0.12) a n d 0.52 µg/ d ay (r a n ge 0.18-1.14), r es p ect ively. T h e r es u lt s s h ow t h a t p eo-p le liv in g in t h is a r ea , eo-p a r t icu la r ly t h os e w h o p r e p a r ed a n d con s u m ed m ea ls w it h ve get a -bles gr ow n in t h eir ga r d en s, m ay h ave h a d h igh er lea d in t a k e t h a n t h e P r ov ision a l Toler -a ble Week ly In t -a k e (P TWI) d efi n ed by WH O (3.0 m g/ p er son ). Ca d m iu m in t a k e s h ow s a s im ila r t r en d a n d w a s w it h in t h e r a n ge of con t r ol va lu es a n d b elow t h e P TWI va lu e (0.5 m g/ p er s on )[14].

In con clu sion , b ot h p op u la t ion s (u r b a n a n d lea d s m elt er y a r ea ) s t u d ied s h ow ed t h a t 61-64 p er cen t of a b sor b ed lea d a n d 92-96 p er cen t of a b sor b ed ca d m iu m or igin a t es fr om in ges t ed food .

T h er efor e, su ch a “t ot a l exp os u r e a s s es s-m en t ” a p p r oa ch s ees-m s t o b e ju st ifi ed b eca u se it p oin t ed ou t t h e im p or t a n ce of lea d a n d ca d m iu m in t a k e t h r ou gh food in t h ese p op u -la t ion gr ou p s.

References

1 Iyen ga r, G.V., E lem en ta l a n a lysis of b iologica l

system s, Vol. I, B iom ed ica l, E n v ir on m en ta l, Com p osition a l, a n d M eth od ologica l A sp ects of T ra ce E lem en ts, CRC P r es s, Boca Ra t on , F L,

1989, p. 242.

2 Bla n u ˘sa , M. a n d Br e˘sk i, D., “Con t r ibu t ion t o r esolv in g a n a ly t ica l p r oblem s of lea d a n d ca d m iu m d et er m in a t ion in food a n d fa eces ”, in F a r m er, J .G. (E d .), In ter n a tion a l Con feren ce

H ea v y M eta ls in th e E n v ir on m en t, E d in b u rgh , Vol. 1, CE P Con su lt a n t s Lt d , E d in bu r gh , 1991,

p p. 597–600.

3 Wor ld H ea lt h Or ga n iza t ion , A ir Qu a lity Gu id

e-lin es for E u r op e, E u r op ea n Ser ies N o. 23, WH O

Re gion a l Office for E u r op e, Cop en h a gen , 1987, p. 426.

4 Va h t er, M. a n d Slor a ch , S., E x p osu re M on itor

-in g of L ea d a n d Ca d m iu m : A n In ter n a tion a l

Pilot S tu d y w ith in th e W H O/ UN E P H u m a n E x p osu re A ssessm en t L oca tion (H E A L ) Pr o-g ra m m e, WH O a n d UN E P, GE MS, N a ir ob i,

1990, p. 82.

5 ˘Sa r i ´c, M ., E n v ir on m en ta l E x p osu re A ssessm en t

a n d H ea lth E ffect S tu d ies in th e R ep u blic of Cr oa tia 1980-1995. (In p r ess).

6 Bla n u ˘sa , M., H r ˘sa k , J . a n d F u ga ˘s, M., “Lea d a n d ca d m iu m in h u m a n d iet in lea d p ollu t ed a r ea ”, in Ba r celo, J . (E d .), E n v ir on m en ta l

Con ta m in a tion , 4th In ter n a tion a l Con feren ce, B a rcelon a , 1990, CE P Con su lt a n t s Lt d , E d in

-bu r gh , 1990, p p. 490–2.

7 Bla n u ˘sa , M., “H eav y m et a l d iet a r y in t a k e: a E u r op ea n com p a r ison ”, in Rich a r d son , M. (E d .), Ch em ica l S a fety, In ter n a tion a l R eferen ce

M a n u a l, VCH , Wein h eim , 1994, p p. 171–81.

8 ˘Sa r i ´c, M ., F u ga ˘s, M. a n d Bla n u ˘sa , M., “Tot a l exp os u r e t o lea d a n d ca d m iu m of a gr ou p of p eop le fr om a lea d con t a m in a t ed a r ea ”, in Seem ayer, N.H . a n d H a d n a gy, W. (E d s), E n v

i-r on m en ta l H ygien e III , Sp i-r in gei-r -Vei-r la g,

Ber lin , 1992, p p. 167–70.

9 Wor ld H ea lt h Or ga n iza t ion , IP CS, Ca d m iu m –

E n v ir on m en ta l A sp ects, E n v ir on m en t a l H ea lt h

Cr it er ia 135, Gen eva , WH O, IP CS, 1992, p. 156. 10 Bla n u ˘sa , M., Iv i ˘ci ´c, N. a n d Sim eon , V., “Lea d , ir on , cop p er, zin c a n d a sh in d ecid u ou s t eet h in r ela t ion t o a ge a n d d ist a n ce fr om a lea d s m elt er ”, B u lletin of E n v ir on m en ta l Con ta m

i-n a tioi-n a i-n d T ox icolog y, Vol. 45, 1990, p p. 478–85.

11 Va h t er, M ., A ssessm en t of H u m a n E x p osu re to

L ea d a n d Ca d m iu m T h r ou gh B iologica l M on i-tor in g, GE MS/ UN E P / WH O, St ock h olm , 1982,

p. 136.

12 Bla n u ˘sa , M., Kr a lj, Z. a n d Bu n a r ev i ´c, A., “In t er a ct ion of ca d m iu m , zin c a n d cop p er in r ela t ion t o sm ok in g h a b it , a ge a n d h ist op a t h o-logica l fi n d in gs in h u m a n k id n ey cor t ex”,

A rch iv es of T ox icolog y, Vol. 58, 1985, p p.115–17.

13 Bla n u ˘sa , M., Teli˘sm a n , S., H r ˘sa k , J ., F u ga ˘s, M., P r p i ć–M a ji ć, D. a n d ˘Sa r i ć, M., “Assess m en t of exp os u r e t o lea d a n d ca d m iu m t h r ou gh a ir a n d food in in h a b it a n t s of Za gr eb ”, A r h iv z a h

igi-ijen u ra d a i tok sik ologiju , Vol. 42, 1991, p p.

257–66.

14 Bla n u ˘sa , M. a n d Kost ia l, K., “Diet a r y E xp os u r e t o Lea d a n d Ca d m iu m in Yu gos lav ia ”, Ch em

i-ca l S p ecia tion a n d B ioa v a ilab ility, Vol. 3, 1991,