Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1999] 9 0 –9 5 © MCB Unive rs ity Pre s s [ISSN 0956-6163]
Nuisance caused by aircraft noise in the vicinity of
Tehran International Airport
Khodabakshsh Karami
He alth Fac ulty, Ahwaz Unive rs ity o f Me dic al Sc ie nc e s , Ahwaz, Iran
Stan Frost
De partme nt o f Enviro nme ntal Re s o urc e s , Unive rs ity o f Salfo rd, Salfo rd, UK
Introduction
An n oya n ce is a com m on p sych ologica l r es p on s e t o n oise (Mclea n a n d Ta r n op olsk y, 1977; Ta r n op olsk y et a l., 1980) d efi n ed a s: feelin g b ot h er ed by n ois e d ist u r b a n ce or d isp lea s u r e a s socia t ed w it h a n y a gen t or con d it ion , con ver s a t ion a n d r es t in t er fer en ce (WH O, 1980), fa t igu e or h ea d a ch e (St a n sfeld et a l., 1985). Da ily exp osu r e t o en v ir on m en t a l s t r es s or s ca n cr ea t e a n n oya n ce a n d d ecr ea ses t h e q u a lit y of life for t h ose w h o v iew it a s u n n eces s a r y a n d u n con t r olla ble (Coh en et a l., 1986). Dis t u r b a n ce of s lee p by n ois e is oft en t h e u n d er ly in g r ea son for n oise a n n oya n ce (St r ea m , 1980). Sp eech in t er fer en ce by n ois e is a ls o a n n oy in g (M u lh olla n d a n d At t en b or -ou gh , 1981), a n d com m u n ica t ion in t er fer en ce ca u s es w id es p r ea d a n n oya n ce (Loeb, 1986; Sm it h , 1991). Res id en t s a r ou n d t wo a ir p or t s in Ca n a d a , Tor on t o (In t er n a t ion a l) a n d Os h aw a (Mu n icip a l) (Tay lor et a l., 1981) sh ow ed t h e p er cen t a ge of p eop le h igh ly a n n oyed w a s con s id er a ble for b ot h a ir p or t s. In F r a n ce, T h e N et h er la n d s a n d t h e UK 80 p er cen t of p eop le w er e a n n oyed a t 55 N N I (Va llet et a l., 1988).
In t er fer en ce w it h a ct iv it ies m igh t b e a s ou r ce of gr ea t er a n n oya n ce w h er ein su cces s-fu l a ch ievem en t of t h e a ct iv it y is h igh ly va lu ed by t h e s u b ject s (Lev y -Leb oyer a n d M oser, 1987). An n oya n ce is a s s ocia t ed w it h t h e n ois e level a n d t y p e of a ct iv it y. T h e con -t ex-t is a ls o im p or -t a n -t (Ch eife-t z a n d Bor sk y, 1980) a n d a n n oya n ce is a d ir ect effect of n ois e on con ver s a t ion , m en t a l con cen t r a t ion , r es t or r ecr ea t ion (WH O, 1980). T h e r ela t ion sh ip b et w een a ir cr a ft n ois e (Gu n n et a l., 1981; Mor a n et a l., 1981; Va llet et a l., 1988; Sm it h a n d St a n s feld , 1986), t r a in n ois e (Ah r lin a n d Ry la n d er, 1979; Cle gg, 1979), t r a ffic n ois e (Ka r a m i a n d F r ost , 1995; La n gd on , 1976; Ry la n d er et a l., 1976), in d u s t r ia l n oise (Oh r s t r om a n d Bjor k m a n , 1978; M ela m ed et a l., 1988) a n d p ow er lin es n ois e (Ler n er a n d Leh r m a n , 1981) est a blis h ed a p osit ive cor r ela -t ion b e-t w een n oise a n d a n n oya n ce. A gr ea -t er
p er cen t a ge of p eop le w er e h igh ly a n n oyed by a ir cr a ft n oise a s com p a r ed t o r oa d t r a ffic n oise a t t h e sa m e n oise level (H a ll et a l., 1981; Roh r m a n n , 1978). H igh er a n n oya n ce levels w er e fou n d for r oa d t r a ffic t h a n for t r a in s a n d t r a m w ay s w h en com p a r ed t o a ir cr a ft n oise (Ah r lin a n d Ry la n d er, 1979). In H a m bu r g (Ger m a n y ) p eop le a r e m or e a n n oyed by a ir -cr a ft n oise t h a n ot h er s ou r ces of u r b a n n oise. Resp on d en t s b elieved t h a t a ir cr a ft n oise w a s t h e m ost u n p lea sa n t t y p e of en v ir on m en t a l n oise, even if t h ey d id n ot live n ea r a n a ir -p or t . T h e fu r t h er r a n k or d er w a s st r eet t r a f-fi c, fa ct or ies, con st r u ct ion a n d r a ilw ay s (Roh r m a n n , 1978). In t h e UK t h er e h ave b een few com p la in t s a b ou t r a ilw ay n oise, yet sou n d levels gen er a t ed a lon g r a ilw ay s a r e h igh er t h a n levels fr om va r iou s ot h er sou r ces w h ich fr eq u en t ly give r is e t o w id es p r ea d com p la in t s (Cle gg, 1979). A socia l su r vey (F id ell a n d Silva t i, 1991) on t h e p r eva len ce of a n n oya n ce in H a r t sfi eld In t er n a t ion a l Air -p or t (ATL) in Atla n ta sh ow s th at a ir cr a ft n oise w a s th e m ost disliked a spect of n eigh bou r h ood life for r esiden ts of both a cou stica lly tr eated a n d u n tr eated h om es in a ll n oise exposu r e in ter va ls.
An n oya n ce w it h a ir cr a ft n oise h a s oft en b een a ssocia t ed w it h fea r a n d t h e b elief t h a t t h e n ois e cou ld b e p r even t ed if a d eq u a t e m ea -su r es w er e t a k en (F ield a n d Wa lk er, 1982). Resp on d en t s liv in g d ir ect ly u n d er n ea t h a fl igh t p a t h a r e m or e a n n oyed t h a n p eop le liv in g ou t s id e t h e p a t h (Gjest la n d , 1988). T h e fea r of cr a sh es in t h e n eigh b ou r h ood a r e a n im p or t a n t fa ct or for gen er a t in g a n n oya n ce w it h a ir cr a ft n oise (Gu n n , 1987; Gu n n et a l., 1981; Reijn eveld , 1994).
Materials and methods
T h e q u est ion n a ir e w a s b a s ed on ea r lier in ves-t iga ves-t ion s (Dia m on d a n d Rice, 1987; J u e eves-t a l., 1984; Mclea n a n d Ta r n op ols k y, 1977;
Ta r n op olsk y a n d M or t on -Willia m s, 1980) w it h st a n d a r d com m on ly u sed q u est ion s. T h e Keywords
Air trans po rt, He alth, Iran, No is e , Planning
Abstract
Kho dabakshsh Karami and Stan Fro st
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
q u es t ion n a ir e w a s d es ign ed in a for m t h a t m a d e it ea sy for r esid en t s t o a n swer t h e q u es-t ion s. Socia l su r vey s es-t o m ea su r e h u m a n r ea ct ion s (Ha d e a n d Bu llen , 1982) r eq u ir e r esp on d en t s t o give a r a t in g of t h eir feelin gs in r ela -t ion -t o p a r -t icu la r a n n oya n ce fa c-t or s. Qu es-t ion s sh ou ld es-t h er efor e in clu d e es-t h e wor d a n d d ir ect ly r ela t e t o “a n n oya n ce”. Th is r ecom -m en d a t ion w a s a d op t ed for t h e q u est ion n a ir e u sed in t h e Teh r a n su r vey. Resid en t s wer e en cou r a ged t o in clu d e in d iv id u a l p er ce p t ion s on h ea lt h , com m u n ica t ion a n d sa t isfa ct ion in r ela t ion t o a ir cr a ft n oise a n d t o r a t e t h eir feelin gs u sin g t h e d escr ip t ive p h r a ses “ver y m u ch ”, “fa ir ly ”, “a lit t le”, “ver y oft en ”, “q u it e oft en ” a n d “r a r ely ”. Two sou n d level m et er s wer e ca lib r a t ed a n d st a n d a r d ised by t h e De p a r t m en t of Ap p lied Acou st ics, Un iver sit y of Sa lfor d . N oise m ea su r em en t s a n d socia l su r vey s wer e ca r r ied ou t a t t h r ee sit es in t h e a ir p or t r esid en t ia l a r ea . Mea su r em en t s wer e m a d e wh en t h e effect s of en v ir on m en t a l v ib r a t ion , h u m id it y, w in d , t em p er a t u r e a n d r a in wer e in sign ifi ca n t (J a m a b Con su lt in g E n gin eer s, 1991) on su n n y a n d b r igh t d ay s (Cr ook er a n d P r ice, 1975; Pen n , 1979). Th e St a t ist ica l P a ck a ge for Socia l Scien ces (SP SS P C+) w a s u sed for d a t a a n a ly sis.
T h e va r ia bles w er e en t er ed b a sed on Da t a E n t r y II. T h e a m ou n t of exp osu r e t o a ir cr a ft n ois e is m ea su r ed u s in g d iffer en t u n it s (N N I, N E F, Ld n , CN E L) a s r ecom m en d ed by a u t h or -it ies in va r iou s cou n t r ies (H a d e a n d Bu llen , 1982; M u lh olla n d a n d At t en b or ou gh , 1981; Sh e p h er d , 1987). N N I w a s select ed a s a su it -a ble m et r ic of -a ir cr -a ft n ois e -a s sess m en t for t h e p r esen t st u dy. It is gen er a lly a cce p t ed a s a m ea n s of a s ses sin g a n n oya n ce lik ely t o b e ca u s ed by a ir cr a ft n ois e (Ba t t in g et a l., 1980; Kn ip s ch ild , 1977; Sm it h a n d St a n sfeld , 1986; Wa t k in s et a l., 1981).
Results and discussion
T h e level of a n n oya n ce a m on gst r es id en t s sh ow ed 91 p er cen t of p eop le a r e a n n oyed by a ir cr a ft n ois e w it h 43 p er cen t b ein g “ver y m u ch ” a ffect ed (s ee F igu r e 1). Ab ou t 75 p er cen t of r es id en t s h ave lived in t h e a r ea for t en yea r s or m or e. T h er e is n o ev id en ce of a r ela -t ion sh ip b e-t w een -t h e p r oblem of -t h e level of a ir cr a ft n ois e a n d t h e len gt h of t im e dw ellin g n ea r M eh r a b a d Air p or t . Lon g-t er m r es id en t s a r e ju s t a s a n n oyed by a ir cr a ft n ois e a s a r e n ew r esid en t s. Ot h er st u d ies (Coh en a n d Wein st ein , 1981) d em on st r a t e t h is a n d in Sp a in t h e n eigh b ou r h ood n oises w er e com -p a r ed w it h s a t is fa ct ion levels w h ich w er e h igh er in q u iet a r ea s t h a n n ois y a r ea s. N ois es h ave b een cla s s ifi ed on t h e b a sis of t h e sou r ce (t r a ffic, a ir cr a ft , elect r on ica lly
p r od u ced , voca l, a n im a l a n d im p a ct sou n d s (su ch a s b a n gin g d oor s or foot st e p s), a n d t h e ext en t of t h eir d ist u r b a n ce ca p a cit y (Ut ley a n d Keigh ley, 1988). In F r a n ce (Lev y -Leb oyer a n d N a t u r el, 1991) t h e m ost a n n oy in g n oises w er e t h ose ju d ged t o b e lou d , a b n or m a l, im p ossible t o avoid a n d h a p p en in g a t n igh t . Feelin gs of a n n oya n ce m ay b e p a r t ly ca u sed in d ir ect ly by t h e su b ject s’ aw a r en ess of t h eir im p a ir ed p er for m a n ce in n ois y a r ea s (Ar v id sson a n d Lin dva ll, 1978).
T h e sign ifi ca n ce of a ir cr a ft n oise is a lso illu st r a t ed by a su r vey con d u ct ed in t h e USA (E n v ir on m en t a l P r ot ect ion Agen cy, 1978). H er e, t h e r ea son s for w a n t in g t o m ove fr om a p a r t icu la r p la ce w er e given a s d ay -n igh t n oise levels of (Ld n ) > 68b B (A ). Air cr a ft n oise w a s t h e m a in p r oblem a ccor d in g t o m ost su r vey p a r t icip a n t s. Va r iou s ot h er r ea son s r esp on d en t s give for d is sa t is fa ct ion in clu d e clim a t e, t h e n eed for b et t er liv in g a ccom m o-d a t ion , sm ok e/ o-d ir t / s m ells a n o-d o-d is t a n ce fr om wor k (Wilson , 1989).
In th is stu dy, th e sa tisfa ction sca le r a n ges fr om “fa ir ly” to “defi n itely sa tisfi ed” a n d is u sed to r a te th e over a ll r espon se to a ir cr a ft n oise of th ose qu estion ed. It in dica tes a r ela -tion sh ip between a ir cr a ft n oise a n d dissa tis-fa ction scor es. Th e n oise w a s a ssessed a n d w a s u n bea r a ble to 80 per cen t of r espon den ts (see F igu r e 2). It ca u sed feelin gs of dislik e a m on gst th e r esiden ts tow a r ds th e en vir on m en t. Air -cr a ft n oise is th e m ost im por ta n t fa ctor in feelin gs of dislik e for th eir a r ea (see F igu r e 3).
Con seq u en t ly t h ey wou ld p r efer t o m ove fr om t h e a r ea b eca u se of t h e a ir cr a ft n oise (see F igu r e 4).
5 0
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2 0
1 0
0
ve ry muc h fairly
a little no t at all
% Figure 1
Kho dabakshsh Karami and Stan Fro st
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
An n oya n ce d u e t o a ir cr a ft n oise w a s r a t ed a s t h e b iggest sou r ce of a n n oya n ce fr om a list of n eigh b ou r h ood n oises. T h e p r op or t ion of t h e t ot a l s a m p le of r esp on d en t s w h o a r e a n n oyed by d iffer en t n eigh b ou r h ood n oises (see F igu r e 5) in d ica t es t h a t m or e t h a n t wo-t h ir d s of com p la in t s a r e a b ou t a ir cr a ft n oise. T h e m ost b ot h er som e n oises in t h is st u dy ca n b e d iv id ed in t o a ir cr a ft n oise, ch ild r en a n d p eo-p le ou t sid e, t r a ffic n oise a n d ch ild r en a n d a d u lt s in d oor s. T h er e is a s ign ifi ca n t r ela t ion -sh ip b et w een t h e d e gr ee of sa t isfa ct ion a b ou t liv in g w h er e t h ey a r e a n d b ein g b ot h er ed by a ir cr a ft n oise (P = 0.001). St a r t lin g sou n d s (P < 0.001), h ou se v ib r a t ion s (P = 0.006), com m u n ica t ion in t er fer en ce (P = 0.02) fr om a ir -cr a ft n oise, fea r of a ir -cr a ft -cr a s h in g (P < 0.001) a n d s lee p d is t u r b a n ce (P < 0.001) a r e sign ifi ca n t u n d er ly in g r ea son s for a ir -cr a ft n oise a n n oya n ce. T h er efor e, a n n oya n ce d er ives fr om sever a l a ir cr a ft n oise effect s. T h e d iffer en t in d ices of a n n oya n ce a n d t h e p er cen t a ge of t h os e a ffect ed in d ica t e t h a t a ir cr a ft n oise in d u ces d iffer en t r esp on ses w h ich p r om p t “a n n oya n ce” (see F igu r e 6).
Fea r of cr a sh in g a ir cr a ft is a n im p or t a n t ca u se of con cer n a n d a n n oya n ce a m on gst r esid en t s. T h is fi n d in g con for m s w it h t h e r esu lt s of p r ev iou s r esea r ch (Gu n n , 1987; Mor a n et a l., 1981; St a n sfeld et a l., 1985; T r a cor In c., 1971) a n d wor k on cr a sh ed a n d ot h er a r ea s a r ou n d a ir p or t s in Am er ica (Mor a n et a l., 1981) a n d T h e N et h er la n d s (Reijn eveld , 1994). All in t er v iew ees w er e con cer n ed bu t t h er e w er e gr ea t er fea r a n d a n n oya n ce a m on gst t h os e in a r ea s w h er e t h er e h a d b een cr a sh es p r ev iou sly. Ot h er st u d ies (St a n s feld et a l., 1985) a lso con fi r m ed t h a t fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a s h es a s a fa ct or in d u c-in g a n n oya n ce r esp on ses t o a ir cr a ft n oise a ccen t u a t ed t h e b elief t h a t a ir cr a ft n oise im p a ir s h ea lt h . It w a s a lso s h ow n t h a t com -p la in t s a b ou t a ir cr a ft n oise fr om t h ose w h o a r e a fr a id t o fl y or w h o fea r t h e t h r ea t of a ir -cr a ft -cr a sh es a n d d a m a ge t o t h eir h om es r ela t e m or e t o t h e sign ifi ca n ce of t h e n oise t h a n it s in t en s it y (Br oa d b en t , 1980).
T h e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh es is a p sych osocia l fa ct or a m on g r es id en t s a r ou n d a ir -p or t s. It is a n im -p or t a n t fa ct or for gen er a t in g a n n oya n ce t o a ir cr a ft n oise a n d t h e b elief t h a t it im p a ir s h ea lt h (Gu n n , 1987; St a n sfeld et a l., 1985). T h e fa ct or s w h ich cou ld b e a ca u se of a ir cr a ft n oise r ea ct ion w er e st u d ied a r ou n d seven m a jor a ir p or t s in t h e USA (T r a cor In c., 1971). Fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g w a s t h e m ost im p or t a n t fa ct or in fl u en cin g r ea ct ion s t o a ir cr a ft n oise. Air cr a ft n oise in t h ese sit u a t ion s in d u ces fea r a n d a sen se of in secu r it y w h ich a r e t wo im p or t a n t a sp ect s a ffect in g p sych ologica l h ea lt h a n d t h e q u a lit y of life (H a d e a n d Bu llen , 1982).
5 0
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definitely satisfied
definitely unsatisfied
fairly satisfied
fairly unsatisfied Key
Figure 2
Airc raft no is e s atis fac tio n
airc raft no is e 4 5 %
e nviro nme nt 5 % no le is ure 7 % po llutio n 1 1 % traffic no is e
2 0 % e c o no mic 1 2 %
Figure 3
Re as o ns fo r dis like o f are a
e nviro nme nt 2 4 %
ne ighbo urs 1 3 %
ac c o mmo datio n 2 0 % traffic no is e
1 0 %
airc raft no is e 3 0 %
garris o n 3 % Figure 4
Kho dabakshsh Karami and Stan Fro st
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
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In t h is s t u dy, t h e d iffer en t sca les r a n gin g fr om “n ot a t a ll” t o “ver y oft en ” w er e u s ed t o r a t e t h e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g w h en fl y in g over h ea d . It in d ica t es t h a t 68 p er cen t of p eo-p le a ls o fea r a ir cr a ft n ois e b eca u se of t h eir con cer n a b ou t t h e r isk of cr a sh es. T h er e is a sign ifi ca n t r ela t ion sh ip b et w een t h e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g a n d t h e ext en t of a ir cr a ft n oise d is t u r b a n ce a m on gs t t h e r es id en t s. Wh en h ou s es v ib r a t e t h er e is a sign ifi ca n t fea r of a cr a sh (P < 0.001) a n d t h ose a ffect ed r e p or t sign ifi ca n t ly gr ea t er a ir cr a ft n ois e a n n oya n ce t h a n t h os e w h o a r e u n a ffect ed (P < 0.001). T h er e is a n a s socia t ion b et w een
t h e fea r of a ir cr a ft cr a sh in g a n d p sych o-p h y siologica l sy m o-p t om s (st a r t lin g, P = 0.002; h ea d a ch es, P = 0.02; t ir ed n ess a n d fa t igu e, P < 0.001; t en sen ess a n d n er vou sn ess, P = 0.004).
Of t h ose q u es t ion ed 95 p er cen t b elieve t h a t a ir cr a ft n oise t h r ea t en s t h eir h ea lt h “a lit t le” t o “ver y m u ch ” w it h 57 p er cen t r a t ed “ver y m u ch ”. T h e p er ce p t ion of a ir cr a ft n oise b ein g h a r m fu l cor r ela t es p osit ively w it h t h e ext en t of d is sa t isfa ct ion , P < 0.001; fea r of cr a sh in g, P = 0.004; slee p d ist u r b a n ce, P < 0.001; n er vou sn es s, P = 0.01 a n d a n n oya n ce, P < 0.001. T h is con fi r m s p r ev iou s s t u d ies (Coh en a n d Wein st ein , 1981; Ga r cia et a l., 1988) a n d in d ica t es t h e im p or t a n ce of t h e r esp on d en t s’ p er ce p t ion of t h e n ois e t h ey exp er ien ced .
Bet t er ed u ca t ed r es id en t s a r e m or e wor r ied a b ou t h ea lt h effect s of a ir cr a ft n oise. Ir r i-t a b ilii-t y, h ea d a ch es, d e p r ession a n d i-t h e d esir e t o es ca p e fr om t h e n oise a r e t h e cla s sic sy m p t om s of n oise a n n oya n ce (Loeb, 1986). Accor d -in g t o P en n (1979), r esid en t s a r ou n d H a m bu r g a n d Mu n ich a ir p or t s su ffer n er vou s n ess a s a r esu lt of a ir cr a ft n oise. T h e r esu lt of t h is st u dy s h ow s a sign ifi ca n t a ssocia t ion b et w een b ein g st a r t led a n d p er ce p t ion of a ir cr a ft n oise d a n ger (P < 0.001). St a r t lin g is a sign ifi ca n t fa ct or for d issa t isfa ct ion w it h a ir cr a ft n oise (P < 0.001), a n n oya n ce (P < 0.001), n er vou s n ess (P = 0.04) a n d t ir ed n ess/ fa t igu e (P < 0.001).
Conclusion
Da t a ga t h er ed in t h e p r esen t st u dy, t oget h er w it h in t er im r esu lt s of ot h er st u d ies in F r a n ce, T h e N et h er la n d s, Ger m a n y a n d J a p a n , sh ow t h a t a n n oya n ce in cr ea sed w it h in cr ea sin g n u m b er of over -fl igh t s a n d n oise level (Oh r s t r om a n d Bjor k m a n , 1978). T h er e w a s a h igh cor r ela t ion a t fou r F r en ch a ir -p or t s b et w een t h e aver a ge fi gu r es of t h e a n n oya n ce scor es a n d n oise level (Bu glia r ello et a l., 1976). N oise level is t h e m os t im p or t a n t va r ia ble in d et er m in in g a n n oya n ce (Ch eifet z a n d Bor sk y, 1980).
Com p a r ison s of a ir cr a ft n oise in d iffer en t a r ea s a r ou n d Meh r a b a d Air p or t su ggest t h a t t h e h igh er n oise levels con t r ibu t e m ost t o a n n oya n ce (see F igu r e 7). T h e over a ll con clu -sion p r om p t ed by t h is st u dy is t h a t a ir cr a ft n oise is a sign ifi ca n t en v ir on m en t a l p r oblem w h ich h a s n e ga t ive effect s t h r ea t en in g h u m a n h ea lt h a n d w h ich r eq u ir es effect ive con t r ols t h r ou gh m or e con sid er a t ion in fu t u r e cit y p la n n in g.
Figure 5
Co mparis o n o f diffe re nt no is e s
8 0
7 0
6 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
0 %
Key
s tartling
fe e l ne rvo us
he adac he s
vibratio n
c onversation interferenc e
fe ar o f c ras hing
waking up
tiredness and fatigue Figure 6
Kho dabakshsh Karami and Stan Fro st
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
Refer ences
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6 0
5 0
4 0
3 0
2 0
1 0
0 %
ve ry muc h fairly
a little no t at all
Key
NNI = 4 6 NNI = 4 7 NNI = 5 3
Figure 7
Kho dabakshsh Karami and Stan Fro st
Nuisanc e c ause d by airc raft no ise in the vic inity o f Te hran Inte rnatio nal Airpo rt
Enviro nme ntal Manage me nt and He alth
1 0 / 2 [1 9 9 9 ] 9 0 –9 5
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