Teaching English As A Second Language Selection 2.

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CONTEI{IS

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!J. Stevich:

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]lATill-.rLS E'JALULTI;IG rii.lD . . /tDAPTII.lc LLNGUAGE

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Coolcl SOME TYUDS rJIr 0l?i.1, STRUCTIIRE DRIII,S.

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ford

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Itator:

D5VIILOPUEI'IT OF-A M|NIPIIUiTf ON-

coM}[uNlciIIotv sc LE..

Clif f ortl H.

Prator:

ADJIICTMS OP TEIIPLThTIIRE

L.h. Ilill:

I'SOHPCUNDS'| riND TEE PRiCTICJ\L TEa.CHER...

Gsorgo-R.

Carroll:

TIIII Bn TTIE FOR BETTEII REIDING...

John

F. Povey:

LITDPuTTIIRE IN TESL PROGR/rI'IS: TEE

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Virginia

fTench

r.Iloni

TRENDS

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THE TE/ICHfNG OF

RETiDII'lc. Vl

Julia

Dobson: I,!r\KII,IG TIm MOST OF

RHTDfNG. ,rL Willian E. Norris:

^/TDVLNCED RETDING: GOiI,S _! -fECHNIQITES

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David D.

Eskey:

ADVIiIICBD RET.DING: TI{E STRUCI'ITRAI

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VLviau

Horn:

riDVLi'lCliD IEiDING

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^TELCH]NG LOGICAL

RLLrrIotisrrIPS...

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Nancy

lrapoff,:

liRItII\tG: l1 TI{f NiiING PIOCESS... .

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Gorald Dyk6tra and Christina Bratt.?aulstoa:

GUIDED

COI.IPOSTTION

_,97

Dotald Knapp:

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FOCUSDD, III'FICIEI.IT I,{DIHoD TO REIAIE

CO}iPOSITION CORRECTION TO TEACIIING TrIDs 4Of David

i.bercrotrbie:

TltE SOCii.L B/,SIS OF IANGUAOE...r

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Ar.lD ADAPT|r/C{ltt

^{ti< riPT} ir'iRPrJSrAffiAN

FneTtRlflLi ^{Ii::11 FlilANG}

INTRODUCTIO}J

Uith

the ^gSowing shortage

oi tine

antl noney

for uriting

new textbookat

particularly in thc

6elalon-taught ianguagesr thoro

is

a ^{pron5'un on} oaking

offectivl

^uso

of

what already

oxiste.

^{l'ie havo sonotiuee act€d}

aB thougbr

for

any glven

oei of

uraterials, the cholce was only ^bstv€oD ueiag then auil

rojecting then.

Adaptation, as

a

thLrd.

alternativet

hae recelvod very

llttlo in

terme

of

timo

or of

^Eoney

or of

^preatlgo.

Renrltingl a foulth po66ibi1ity, ie

ofteu ^{vi.cwed both as} unJustifiably troublegone

for

the

reuiitorr

antl ae an

effrout to the origiral

^autbor.

Iet

^anoug tho nany dozeus

of

langua6e teachero Hbo have beerr

consultotl

in

tho preparatioa

of thie

^{bookr there bao beEa ecaroely one}

who tloob.not

claln thet

^he

or

ehe Eakeo 6omo chan8es

or

adt[ltLona.

to

tho prS.ntod tertbookq .oveu

if it is

oupposoally

ot

tho progra.nnod

solf- iaetruotioual variety.

Many

of

^tboes intervieved ileacribeal EaJor chanEor.

A. few operate

uith a

Elninuo

outline

^anai

a fol,

^proPar anil reoreate the oourB(r gvory

tlno

^{tbo&' teacb}

It.

^Undor thoee oircunstanceB,

txo polutl

neeil euphasia:

.:!Bgtt

the_various degreeg

of

actaptatioBr &u8leBtatiout and rer+riting

forn a

contiuuunt

at

tho

far

^enal

of

nhioh

lteatla

^the preparatiou

of orlginal msterials;

t€cond, beforo on€ can beg:in to ailapt

or

augEeEt

or lfite or rewrito,

^{anil bef} oro one oan even tlecitle vhlch

of

theso

four to

undertal<e1

it ie

^necessary

to

evaluato vhat ^1o

avail,ablo.

lPhls chaptor

offers

gui.delines

for

evaluation, aud outliaec

a

^{general procedure}

for

adaptation.

7.

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EIIATUATION

Hore than oourEe6

in

Frenctr, Spanishl Gormant or Euglioht

e

cgurse

iu a

Eeldoo-taught larglage

is Ilkely to

^be

the brain

^chJ.lal

of

^one

arihor,

couceivoil

in

doeperatioal brought

forth lu obscurity,

^aatt

deetiueal

to

bo ilospisotl ^and roj€ctea by

al-l

other

Een.

^sonetlmes reJectiou

is

lnevitabJ.el

but often it is

tho

lesult of

hastyr or uuporccptive

I or

u[approciativo erarnination

of tho oxisting

^{bool(. l-h€}

followlng

Suideliuee

for

evaluallon may bo applicd

to the efforts

of othofEr

but

alao

to

one'5 otru hancliuorlc both bcforc ^aDd

after it is conploted.

^Tho Suidelincs are stated.

in tcrns of

^tlu'eo

^qualitieot

nonsions, and four ^{c onponcnts.}

)an

throo ^dX

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l

I

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1

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EVALUATION : ^l|ii]lE]i (J'JAI'I'IiIiS

)lvery lcsson! ^cverv

pi'r! of

.

l::'.:"-;:ri ::j.":::""r:11 jl:;':::':"^-

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_i

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hcavincss, ^and opacity

*"

l"-"::....1' ^.

n"o.rin"s6 ^and opacity ^{can be}

situationo in

^rrlrich

a certsr'r

:'.:":':",..-r.,

\.rcaknc6s.

... rt

^{would be}

l',lli:-",',1:: "::::,,,i:

""

""."" .;..;'T,lll

"il'I":::' ^;,.i J::T,,"

_"

larcnc)r

arc

^{absolute virtncs}

t ur 1""-

scon.

i.ieverthdleost \'Jeak'Ecss !

necessa:cily ^Rcans an ^{ir,rpr ovc rire}

trt tt tn"

'"tr:""':r;" ,;;; ,norr ,r"""t"o

heaviaess!

""a op""itv' o'" itt

ce;lijral

"^t"'r";r."t;1i"", lrtri,*-tl*tloox

oafts for slcciill- justification in tcrns ^o as a ^vrhole '

sTRXI'IGtll

Does

it

^carry

availablc? "

must bc

valid erials

^vrriter

' In

^tirc

ViIl

^{lcad to}

asl(:

llilr

boYond' thc rcady for

ir;r ^cl'.'L i-ic coiirsc ^t

218

about' ^s trer'8ti:

morc lcss ^{on I and} bcln8 its ^or'in llci6lrt ^{1;1r mca;:s}

- a ^+

' l{ewirrds nl\i ilc o- ''"

" -r ^{..^ I} ltcs in tul'rhs or L:'\ ^{' '--'}

only.

cval-uit ^i.olL oi such ^{q-jcsi; j" oiIS}

content.

lcto'ant to

^{thc Preccnt}

of the ^rcr'Iards that ^{i.L maLies} l-cast fivc diffc:.'ent l"indsi ^tlicy

o-i thc ^leElrnor ' ^and' not o ^{chc ]iiau-}

c oncoiln

Is

^the

thc

^trail1ccs?

Does tltc in ^{structuJc t}

has bcen ^sct?

A:'c ^the

J,ookinS at ^a

tcxtbcol( ^])r'ova'fc that studclts ^'';i11

f or- thc ^{tools t}

nc scl ii1 ^ordcr

rrast clcd ^onc

and li]':ely luture ^{needs of} both in vocabulary ^and

to ^{1- cach} llilatevcr ^6oa1 ait6 gultural.lj?

rnatcr ials _''u ^{L)lc nt i c} singlc ^{}e;s on}

b o+"h l.in;iiis ^{t j-caliY}

from t],c ^{sat'ic Poiut} of vicv, ^{onc may}

]-ccson sartisf ac'tioris ^{tl-lat o} dcr.ive ^{f I'oin} 'illi ^c

.!hc ^{stur'lcnt s}

i:'iCI' C ^{1 CC} Ir ^trb

thc ^ns:':t? " '

of ^{lleva Ii 5}

Irr PaLrticu)-ar ^t

coutent of ^{t''ri r'}

to ^:,rli;'! cxtclt r'rill"

1cr.,srr 1:::'cc^i-::Lcl:v ^r

tllc students be ^aLle iE a ].ife].ilie ^way?

to ^usc

tlrc

r

I

; l

219

0n the smaLlest eca1o,

a

scntcnce

likc ^,your

borse had bcen ol-drl

(cited

_by Jespersonr r9o4)

i6

wsal.

to

the

point o!

^being feebrc, becausc

thoro

is

,,o

.ituatio. in

which anyono can uec

it.

^The c1ich6 _{r'Tho book}

! 16 on

thc

tablcrr

is

strongor, bccause

the situatione in

which

it

cau, be

{

^used

fairly frequcnt.

But _{we must} distinguieh between

thc

casc with which

a eituation

can bo crcated

in

tho claseroomr end

the

frequoncy

with

vhich

it

actuaJ-J-y 6eto comrncntod. on

in real 1ifs. fn this latter

respect, ^rrThe _book

ie

on

the table is stirl

roJ.atlvely weak. A een-

tence U,lce

rrI

_need.

a taxi;r

^(Tay1or,

_p.!O) is potentially

Btronger be_

cau66 Eost people aro rDore conccrnod about being abLe

to

verbarizo

thle

noed than-they are about bein6 able

to

describe

ths

nost obvioug location

of

a booko

Iu

the 6auc way,

rI

_nced

_a taxilr is

stronger

for

nost

6tudent6 than

rrl

_necd,

_a hinge.,r

But othsr things being cqual, strength

i6

^al-way6

rclative to the

need.o and

interosts of the st\rdents:

aomc

poople

tark

about hingee cvery _day ancr nevor sce

a taxi.

r.or

thia

reasonr we cannot bulLd strength as

a

pcrruancnt _and. absolute

quality _into

any

fixed sot of

materials.

It is

impossiblo

to

give

sinple directions for

determining what would make materials strong

for

any given

c1a6s.

euestionaaires may

heLp, aad being

.psychically lvrithr

oncrs students nay

help.

Certainly

it is

nccossary

to

^be more -than a purveyor

of

lrorcls and

a

mastc:

.l

^alrj11

tochniques.

^(Sce

pp.

LOB-1o9t

folloving.)

LTGITINESS

rs _{a singlo}

rtunitrr so long

that the

student

H.aric. of it

bcforc

it is finishetl,

and loscg any scnse

of its unity?

Does an indivialual

line

weigh hcaviJ-y on

the

etudentrs tongue,

cither

bccausc

of thc

^numbcr

of difficult

soundo

or

bocauso

of its

shccr

length? fnsofar

ns nc, words

or

6tructurc6r by

virtuc of thcir

newncss al-onc, ^{rc.^.} ke

a line

^or

a

lcsson

tiring,

they may be

said to

contribute

to iis

"dei5t*, ^ii5h+7169

ie

intcndod hero

to refcr primarily to

shecr physical ch."-ractcr.isti.cs,

Ytth

reepect

to lightness,

^rlyour horsc rracr bocn orrlii and.

i;i

_ncod.

_a

.ts.xi'r

are approxinatoly

equaI.

Ilcavincss

in this

scnsc nay vary r.rith the language background

of thc

l-uarncr

:

llany r.roulcl f

ind irI

nccd.

a

hingeir

to

be noticeably hcavier than

.I

_nced

_a l;belr,

dcpenrling on vrhcther

the uativb langua6e has

initial /h/

^{(Gcrnar. has,} French ard.spanish rave

not), or final

voiced stopa (I'rcnch has, Gernan and sp..:r.ish _have

rot).

I

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l;i iliji:rIAll;iAil

F

i

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2,20

In

^gfoncral,

of

cou.rsc, wc

try to

make

eir,Iy

lessons

rathcr tight.

But Alcx Lipsoa

is

^one :\uthori.ty who advocotcs

putting

sonc _heavy iteas

into

tho very

first

sessions

of a

now

class,

vl.r.i1e

the

studcnts _ar:e

in thalr

freohest and Eost open

otatc. _Tl;is is

ouc exauplc

of

how none of

the

throo

qualities

has absol-utc Lrocii;iue valuc a.nd. textporary

lack of

one

of

thcee.

qualities is

not ncceisa::iiy bad.

IRANSPARIiNCY

franspn:.eagy

is

prin.iriJ.y

a

cognitive

problon;

how

readily

can tho uoor

of

the oaterial.c sce tbe

units

and

their rclationships?

L.ooking

at a

tortbook as a

vholo,

ve oay aok:

Do these Eaterin.Ls nake clcar. at toacher &ay u6c then

iD

c1a6s?

Lcaot ono way

in

which the

Ie it

oeoy

to

fiual nhore a

o overod?

grvcn

point of

^grantrar ha6. beca

Ulth

roEarcl

to siaglo

_{lcsson.ot wc may ask:}

To

rhat crtent

does

thc

stualcnt know uhat hc

is

^doing and why?

Eov eaEiLy cao

a

toachor oi^. adaptcr

find

placos _r{hcre he ca!, &akc chaugos

or

acidiiions t

ithout

dcstroyitrB the lesson?

lrith

_regaral

to

sing1o

Iines,

wc Eay ask:

Can the Eooaning be

put

across r+ithout translation?.

CaE the studcnt soc.the

structurc of this

scntcnoc

clcarly

cnoggh so that, ho

will

bc

ablc to

use

it

as

a

heLp

in

oomposing

or

cooprohending _{new oncs?}

f

uce a6ain, tranEpaaency

is not

an absolutc _vaLue.

aductivc teaching

of

graitnar,

for

cxanple,

is

thc ay out

of a

tcLlporary structu:.a1, fog.

One good aspcct of fun of working _one ^rs IicedLcss to sayr olncity is to be c:rrculatod fror. the loint ^of

Len of ths lcarner. If thc r.rritcr or adaptcr _knor./s the lan6uagc too r11 hc aay forgct that r.rhirt scr:r:ts obvit:us to hir:t may, bc pcrplcxing rr studor:ts fron a vcry cliff cr:cnt 1;:n3ua6c b::cli6round. Orr thc other

nd t '"rritcrs sometimcs sl,crrd i-:ucrr ci'f ort i. olir,borc,te cxlllanation of point that _{rec.}Iy cqllscc} th€ Studdlts ng troublc.

l I

--L

\

221

s UMMAI|I CoM}{Enrs oN TIIE TERtrE qUALTTIES

Tho differences amoDg

the

three

qualities

may perhaps be

clarifieal

by

fooking

at thc follouing

sentences:

l,leakr

lightr transparent;

The booll

is

on

tho

table.

lJeak, heavy,

transparent:

The

big

red book

is

on

the littIe

tabte by

the

open vindow.

I.'leak

r

heavy! opaquo: The seldoEr comnented_upon

but

frequeutly obeerved

location for

a book

is that in

which we now

find this

one.

. (Potontial]y) _stron6,

hoavy, opaque: The repaot which

the

cook,

for

our enjoyhent and

his

own

eelf-aatisfaction

_hae

(in _a

_{Eaunor of}

6peal(ing) prepared

for

our lunch today

is

pizza.

- (Potentially) ^strong, ligtrt,

opaque:

I

paid

half the

^{then going}

rate.

(PoUentially)

strong,

heavy,

transparent:

_{Heire 6oing}

to

have pizz,a,

with

mush-rooms, anchovies and peperoni.

(Potentially) _strong, Iight, transparent:

L/orre going

to

have pizza

for

lunohl

Obviousl-y',

in

even the best

of

^Lessone some

lines

r+iLl be stronger than

others,

every

line

has 6ome heaviress, and many

wiil

be

partly

opaque._ tr'ulthermore,

the

three

criteria will

oftetr

conflict yith

one

anotheri .

a line

^may be very strong

but also

heavyr

or

transparent but aleo weah. Euen 'so, they may bo worth the

attention of

anyone who

is vriting or

evaluati$8 ).anguage

lessons.

Lightness and tra!.sparescJ; cal conceivably _{be made permanent}

6ttributes of

pornanent lessone,

but

on\r conetant adaptation

will

keep

streigth fron

deterj.orating.

EVALUATION

:

^TII1EE DI i.,xl,isIoIIs

{

The contcnt

of a

textbook, nay bo

plotted in

each of

t opical.

lesson, or a drill, or a single tlinensious: linguistic , ^soc ial,

ora

thr cc

line

and

TIIE LIIIGUIS'IIC _{DIlliNS f} OI,i: Ilor.r vrcll_ must thcy spoak?

In a corirse ae a vhoLe, the J-irrguistic contgrft that is necd.ed is relatively indcpendent of thc agc, occuration or special interests _of

I

f.

2?2

the

prospectivc

students.

Trris contcnt corlsists mainLy

of

phonoLogical patterns. _and

structural _C.vi.cc6.

Bccauso flr.i6 aspcct

of

^content

is

^so

depcndable,

text !,Titcrs

havc

too oftcn

accord.ed

thc linguistic

dinension absolute

prinacy:

soci-aI and

topical

content recd not be absorbing, but only pl,ausible _and

approiriate for

iLl_ustr.ating

a scries of lj.nguistic poi.nts.

This

is particularly IikeIy to

happen r,rhcn the natcrial-s dc- veloper

is

also

a

traiucd.

linguist, intcnt

^oD,. sharing

with

thr,i read.crs

hio

enjoymer:t

of thc intri.cacics

and synriiretrios

of linguistic stlucturc.

iven

bcfore

thc

ascend.ancy

of lin6uj-stic

sciencer

of

^coursc, onc

typc

of tcxtbook subord,inated. cvcrything

clse to thc

nurpose

of

convcyin3 pat-

tern6.

^(That must

surely

havc bcen

thc

^p'.rrposc bchind ,yqur _{horse had,} bcen

ord.rt)

But

in thc

abscncc

of .csoiute

and mcticurous planning

for

other so'.rrces

of rcvard, stiength is

^d:.avn

1;rinalily

^{f:orn the 6ocial}

ari topical dineesio:is. !rj.s is

o:te rc:son uby sone linguisticalJ-y

brilliant

textbooks have becri pedagogical f)-ops.

Iiil SOCIAL DIt4ir,NSf ON 3 trtho is talt<ing with whom?

rt is thercfore a good id.ea, beforc starting to atia?t existing lessonci to al,.av up a simplc t r'ro-d. iilc nsi o.-,a] matrix. Thc social dii:rensioh rists the kinds of pcople r.rith whon tire stud.cnt mos.b urgeptly nccd.s to.

intcract, by occupatio:: of co..rrser but also accorcling to their social status vith :refcrcnce to the corn;:unication evcnt. The choicc -of inter- Iocutors detcrEines ilot o,rly til.c contcnt of rvhat one says, brit ^a]-so the style i.n which onc sa.ls i,,;. If thc ^,uraining sitc ^j-s a ^ju:t:.or bi6h school in an cr^tirely In6Ii sh-spcairirrl,; tor.rn, the origJ.ral_ Iist ^roJ.ght include only thc teaciicr and ;hc othe]- sLudcnts. Thc rc;r1it1. to which

the mt:'ix rciers nay be licsi)cctivc ^as rre}I as inmcdiatc, hor.rever.

ll,any teachers jircf er to operate on thc principle of ^rnolr now and latcr Later: t stici< to prescut :.cal-itics ,hil,c thc stuclcr,ts al.e colrj-lg ivitir tbc :'udiments of thc langua.gc, and bcgi.t: to usc raore distant, ones i, thc interuediatc stagc. Policcracn, taxi 6"ir."au, Iandlord.s, and. rnany

othcrs nay thus bo ^added to rc l.lat:ir. Dut thcy riay only ^be. addcd if the proopcct of cncountcr--.ng tl:cr: ir; ps;,c iiol o gically rcal to thc

stucents ti:cmscrvcs. To _adcl tlicili at thc ,hini of thc tcachcr or for thc co,,vcnicncc oi- tiio natcria]-s r,/ritcr

'rou1d r'csu1t in a spurious natrix, inv;:l-ici f:.on thc poi.t of ^yicw of thc studcnt, and a source of

Ucaknes6 rather tlan strt,nstitr

Iho _sane iirinciplc ^app1j.es to thc training of adults who expcct

to _5o inr.:ediateJ-y tc jobi wllcrc .tliey r.ri1l usc ti.rc langungc. Thc rolcs

42,

a

that

_{makc up}

_the

social-diincnsion

will

be ^r

prospact.

will

be

,"";-";;;;;';:.:::l ": :o'u

^{nunerou'r and the}

tle

r.o,.es

cu. st:.rl ,:":':::'L::l::::: :::

care

in

6e1ectin8 _and defiEir

;l.rcca s trength _{aud lroakno66 .}

.

^Most

writors _give

_sone

attention to thc social

d.irncnsion _whon

they

arc miting

_dia169

matcrial,

_although

_thcrc

_{have becn}

some

*Lrar""

Dril-I meterials,

_on

tho

other _hand, arc usually

trcat[d

", .."r"rr,

^ueutral.

Frcnchr Russian,

inply

_{choice as} ^?hey

arc to or

Level _not ^spanish _ah*ays

of rcspcct,

_scntence cornplctcly and

in

the-

thc so, of coursc.

sccon. 6arac

is

_pcrson cven Any _must trore Gcrman,

truc for

ueceesaril

Eany other languagc. Somc dril_Is _may

in fact

concentrate _on thc contrast _{betwccn tu-forms}

ana vous_forms. This

is finc

ae;

far

a6

it

6oos,

but lt is

not enou6h. _Evcn

thc lorzliest substitution dri1l

can

be checkcd

for its eocial

j.nrplications _(r,!/ho

might say

thin8s to

nhom?r,.

Thus, ^rrHavq _Xrou reccivcd _an

invitation?ir

_and. ,Have you met

thc

anbas_

sador?rr are _compatibe

with

_cach

othor, but

not

l;ith

^:rHave _{you brushed.}

your tceth?i' _Any

internal

inconsistrncics _sh

fication.

^{r.:nclcs should} have sone clcar:

justi_

At riSht

aa51cs

to th

thinss that thc ,.,r:^.:'::"_'^1.":-::t_",. thc topical

di,rension

lists

the ncc

rs

most

Lil:cly to

want

to talk about:

grectingo and gcncral _phrascs

for gcttin6 _a

convcrsation

started,

expressions

neoded

in

conduoting

a

c1ass,

strcct dircctions,

ciia8nosrs

of

poultry disease, _and so

forth.

_{some topics}

arc o: intcrcst to trrinces

_of

akaost

all kind,

_while

o

rer are

highly spccj-alizcd.

_The pr.oblc::,

for thc writor

uho rvants

t

o produco stropg

uaterials, is tlrat the

traincssr nost specialized.

interects arc oftcn

_{lo vcr}

for them.

_Evcn

for a y

ones

that

_{are nost}

vivid dircetions,,,o o"t,.,r'i::Ii]:'.;:;':i":;:,,;rii,':J;.;::,"::"":I".

to

anothcr.

TIIE tOPfdAL DIIIENSIOIf: !/hat are tlicy

talkin6

about?

THE SOCTO.TOPICAL MATRIX

The intersocti on

boxcs. I'or somo

of thc sociaL _arld to]lical dimensions produces a set situations, thc boxcs night _be labclcd as follows:

J

of

i .t!

I

I

I I

2"1

Grce t ings, Strcct

dirccti

^ons

!l ork schedule

Irood etc.

5 1

lauri

strangcr Snall

c

hild

Po1d,c cnan

C olleaque IIost e

i

ctc.

lioi: ::r: :ct aI] thc ^boxcs rvi1l ^{be equally} 'ptausible: ^onc v'iII ^not expcct to i)raise tl)e policemanls cooking or ^ask dircctj'ons of a four- )rcar-o1d chi1d.

Thi-s kind of matrixl is uscful ^both for naiiing an invcntory ^of vhat is in ^an cxistirrg ^{boolir - and} also for plottj'ng thc ^necds of ^a

particular _Eroup of studc-nts. ' lJith tho additiorl of a linguistic ^dinen- sion, ... ^such :\ Eatrix may scrvc in ^planning cntit'c courses' ^{For the}

adaptcr rs nr:cds, iror'rcvcr, t\is ^t t'lo-di:'ie:isi onal grid is casicr to ^managct and alnost ^as cffcctivc.

(privat: co:;r.:uuicatioa)has sug6esLcd how sclectcd' natlix ^-.:,isht bc placcrl on individual ^cards or ^sheets into str.rti:I3 ;oints ^f !'r adaptations or for ^conplcte

EVA.LUATIOI{: fOUn C0t'lPONEl'r'IS

Xarlier d:'afts of tiris chaptcr vcntured the _6ucss that a successful lcsson ^{ilceds c} ol:]iro]-lc Iit s of lour-anfl ^{on1-y f} our-kinds' ^Subscqucnt crpcrir:et:ts, ^and Ciscussicus uit]: nany dozcns of languagc tcacherst have tur;Ied. tiri.s ^{h:ir,c I-.} it:to a bclicf ' ^{The f} our essc:ltial- con!oncutst lhe''her ^{for- spccch} or for Vriting or fol. both, are: occ:rsions for ^usct a s..ii!]c of thc hl.Sucigi: in usc, cxploriition of vocabul-ary

' ^ard

e;q:loreticn oi ^(phonctic t ortirc'6rapi"ic , or Srannaticai) ^f orn' io ^t'rak':

.this assertio:r is not, Itowovel-, to proscrrhc r' iltctliod oi a ^{f oflJat'}

?cC Plaist er boxes

fron

such ^a

of

^{paper and niade}

lessous.

1A natrix t,ith ^{;'. socl J} Dr. Albcrt l. iligi.rt ^{(p- ivli.;c}

1 di;:,-r,sioti w:.s su6gestcd to r'rc by

colr:ru:ricltiort).

s

"1q

Each of the ^f orrr comlonents rxa:,, take any oI cou;:t1ess sllapes, and the

student ^may meet them in ^any of sevcral ordcrs. It ^{should al-so be}

pointed out that the order i:r ^{wlrich Lhr-'} co:ipotre:rts are vrrittcn are writ- ten need not be that in rvhich t)te-7 are _f,l:.cc.1 lef ore ti:,e student.

C0llPoNiiilT 1: OCCAlllOI.lS IOll ^'JSi

o

Every lesson shouLd contain a n,Inbcr of cleer su55estions for usi:5 language. ^Each of these sug6estions sj or.iJ er;bociir a _Iiurnose c'.ttside

the languege itself , ^r.ri1i,ch is ^vaf id i;r tern:s of the stuilent ^I s neeCs

interests. Insofar as thcsc pr.tl'p()ses r':1atc to tilc external ^{worLd .} most of ^them will fal-L urrder on.-' or' ..iore of tirc ^f oliouing rubrics:

t

and

1. .llstablishing or furthcr developin6 real sociel relationships with real peopl-c, including classmatcs. ^Sir:p1e exanples are _6reetin66r introductions r autobio6raphical natters. j:rcluding personal aneodotes,

participation in ^games, ex?loraLion of J.ikes anrl dislikes.

2. Iilicitirrg or imparting desired inforrnalion.

climatc like at various timcs of ^year in ^{sarl(han? -ticw}

Gyston lvork?. fiou is a cc:tain rlish prei;are'i? ^{liow docs}

system of an autoritobile work?

,rhat

Coes

the

is the

the currency

e 1c c tr t ical 1. ^Loarningl or irrrparting usef u1 sl(i:Lls; scHj-j..5' cancing, playin3 Eoccer, tlratc hing a roof.

4.

l,earnirig

to

ma1(e cul-tura11.,' rc1c"'ant jud,3:.;cnis:

ing

ripe

frorn unripe

fruit, car(llnB egts, rreiicti::5

^tl'.c

estinating

water dcpth.

:'.ist i nguish-

5. ^Doin6 things for fuu: -lrLrnor'r

Ta:1c5, singitrg, relaxation.

Some Of th. ocbasi,)ns f or ^{'-.-.c .;i,o,,jcj} playing, pointin6 hand1in6, u:.'itin6, t:tc.

'rI'ind of

i;tv olv c r:ruscular activity:

As many occasions for rtse as possiclc should ^l-'c Y:'ittc:: ^{i:1 tirc} forn of behavioral obiectives: r'that stuicr.ts crc to ^c1o shouli ^be

d.escribod so clcar'}J. that i:hLrre cart l:c no qrrcstion as to ^{whctlicr an-Y}

onL- sLudcntrs pcrformancC r::ects thc rcquircmcnts. ^{Thcrc should be}

sonc ovcrt way in w'llictr oach sturlent ca|i l(noN (a) ttrat ltc has perf orrncc t

anti (b) hovr wc11 he iras ircrf orrrctl. jrol c:i::,lp1c:

!e-11-;1g1-i ^{n1.t: -u--c t ol'.} titc namcs of t ,e pcoFle ]r' tl:c ftr.:iily .''rill:

,l,oi- .',''i'"-a?J-lT;iTa-,-:;r ^{'L ort tiLcy i'.i'c} rclated to onc snotircr''l is ^bct tcr ^{t lian :}

orit th(-. nrriilc s tl'e p':oplc i;r tlo far:ii-!.y r'ri1;I '.L\on I'o''i ^arc ,..-.laiu,i ^{1-o o,t,..:} :^:totl:c:.''

li.ving

t

^{and hos, +h€y . rt'c}

/a. /,lf,

/r

l jI

rYuL

l(

up

I

^piftpuS _IAffiAl,i

lop

na $nl.re

nJ

B

Evea,tho

latte-r is better

than:

' ttfry to

u6e

thi6

vooabulary

(i.e.r

_kinship teirninology) outside

oi

claas.rl

Oooaoi oao f

or

uee,

thent

should be both

useful

and

ry!!!.

^But

they ehould aleo be etimulatinE aud open-ended. ....Reh_B ⁽ private cOrrOS- poatlouoo) conneuts oD..qome

cf

^these oxanploe as

follows:.

Tn

tapetaa!

^aopect

of

Ponapean

culture is the tltLe

ByEton. Each

adu1t, uuieee he

ie

something

of

^an outoast,

is

assigned

a title,

aad

ie

BubaequeBt _{1y -} knoryn Ly

that title in aLl

f o:'Bal- and ^man)r iDforEAI

situations.

However, noot foroignere do

not

know tbeoo

. altoraate

rnanes. r

'

_{A studont nho has Learneal tho rolevaat}

et3uctures anil vocabulary can be aosigaed

a

ta6k

of the follouing

kind:

, |,

(a) n:.ici.t the titles o{

the

adult

ocmbere

of

the

fa.nily

^{you Erre}

i.

_staying

vith.

^Rooord.

tUh

infornatlonr. aad

brlng it

back to

your'

itstIuctor

^.

(b)

_{tlhat are}

_tha literal

^Mcaning6

of

thoae

titlos?

(c)

Within tho ^Pouapean

title

eysten, how iroportant are thoao

tltlee.?

aCouplotion

of

theee tasks accompliehes

a

auober

of

obJectives.

Port (a)

givee.

tho

trainee aa opportunity

to

uso

the

^languago

tbat

be hae learned

in a

nonner

that

16 us,eiul

following

^an

asoigrme

nt that

1o

specific. Part

^(b) providos _him

with

the 6a,1to

foi

oountlcse trours

of intercsting

dlscussion oa

a

topio

tbat

fasciuatea rooEt Ponapcanel

therofore, the task la

^o en-endea.

Part (c)

_brluge

_the

_studcnt

t6 grips with the

powoi structu:'e of tho ooEEuaity, Foretgners _seeo

to

be very cunious about thc roatter

of titles,

dnd so

the.task is also otinulatiuE.

Studentg

very

quickly

rocognizo.busy

vork,

so a

uscful, specifio,

^open-

onded

but

non-stinulating tr.sk

will

probably bo non-productlve.

/o havo discussod occasions for usc bofore the other three components )ecau.6e rrrltors and +"eachcrs so cftca slight thea, cr' :E13re thcn '.Ltocet'Lcr. It is true tha: tll'. .ril-,-ent no::naL-;- :c:-^c:.-^ i:tEr at

t;.. ,.': t! : ,]-casc:::, i3 ;., 5rll Dtlt a wr-i.ter 6r ^ad6p{3p woojd be ^16e

.

_{be$t.n thrn)dn$} abor,)t them as _Soon

ar

he has choSen ^ow

leggon.

^Evgvt

{hc studart's boak, }e

ptanned accdrj on5

far

^{use rnrght be l't stecl o'i}

tread

of

^t0r9

\cs5*r,

So

that'lhe

strJdent ^6.an'f orm

a e\ear.

idea af S P0tentrql

sirenfth of

rhq ^ng9+

ol tr,t lesson.

A<(a,rons

for

^vsg-

ftorrld

certarnf

aff

ect thr wrr]in9

or reV-ision

ol erz7 thc

<om1orunl c

I

c

2?7

COMPONIiM

2:

A SAr"lpLD OI' i,r{ NGU GE USE

Every _lesoon should contain

a

samplc

of

hov the language

is used.

The

*

mpJ,e ehould bo:

1.

long enough

to

bc viable,

tinely _or realisticr

have proved not

2.

ehort enough

to

be covercd,

1-4 hours

of c}iec'timc,

a (Tr.ro-line

d:alogs,

no mattor horr

to

mcet

tliis

requirement. ₎

with

the

rest of

the leoeon,

ln 1. rclated to a

Eocio-topical

natrix that _the

studente accept ao expressing

their

needs and interests.

The oaaplo may takc any

of .everal forms.

lr.rny courses

in

^the

past

treaty-five

years _{have used}

thc

basic CialoR

to fuIflIl thi6

!o1€i

but

other kinds

of

so.nplc are more usofuL

for

6otre purpooea. The ooat

concloto

is

^probably tho

action

chain

(or _action script),

which J.ists

a eerieg.of activiti'es that

normally occur

togethor..

The Bost

fanlriar

exaeple.

Isrrf

get

up. I batho. I.6et

dresscd....

tr ^{but the}

^cmre

for'at

may accomnodato rliscussion

of technicil

processes, negotiatiou

uith a

Landlord

t ^publlc

cerenonies, and many other

topics.

Another

kind of

Eamplor

particularly _suitable after _thc first fifty to

one

hundred hours

of instruction, is a

short pasEage

of

erq)ository _or

narratlvc prose....

Whatever form

the

oanplc takess

it

should contair,

at lea6t

oae o0r

two Lines

that

Lend themsslvee

to

1cxical and,/or gttucturaL erploratl,on

of the ki[ds that will

be discussear

in the

next

tvo sectlois of

^thi.6

chapter, ff thc

samptre d.oes

not

contain _such

1ines,

then

it ri11

become an isolatcd .compartmout

within

the 1e66on, rathel. than a

produotive

part of it....

Lan aae in usc bf course inplies langua ge aG one

_,3r

^{t of a com-}

municati.on eventr ^{and sp}

bodily activity, _includi

nearnesd

to

other pe ople ought bo reccive att enti

oken language is alvreyo accompanied by othor ng gestures, facial- expressions, posture,

r ^{and 60} forth. These aspects of Conmunicatlo:l on aIso. See /rppc.ndix B for exannples.

COIIPONIINT ]: ^LIiXICAL EXI,T,OR],.TION

fn this and the follovin6 scctiol-., wc iravc otadg frequent usd of the word. orplorati_on. This vrori is lorli:.ps confusing, and hence i1L- choscn. lre have usc-d it in ordcr tc,, crnphasisze the active, cleative, partially unprescribeC rolc of thc Lcarner, and to avoid an inage of

r

the learnel

Expl or.at i on a5

-^a

oitc whosc evcry footstep i.s to be guided by a ^pedagoguo.

this sensc ctanilc in contrast to inculcation.

I l,exic4. -:1:1lg"*ioli, tiren,'ref ers to those aopects of a ^l_esson through which tile studeilt cxl)alids ltis abiJ.ity to comc up with, or to recognizo, the right wo.r'd ;1t the ri6ht Ej.mc. Thc si:;rplest kind of lexical exploration uses list6 of lrords, sometincs vj-th a scntence or

two illustratin6 the ilse oi cach. In a welL-constructed lesson, thcro nay be a number of sub-listsr each rclated to some part of thc baslc

e

saoplo. Thus, the basic dialo6 lor Unit (Desberg ot al-., 195O) coirt.rins thc ].ine:

C'eiot ga, et reveill-ez-n oi deoain A oopt heures.

2 of lrench Basic Course

Fine, anJ wakc ne tomorou at seyeir.

and the section devoted

to

Uscful Words provides

the

expressi.o:rs

for

rronc orclock-t' through ^rrelevon orclockrri plus ^trnoonrr eLnd nmidnight.'l The dialog for Unit 5 iacludeo thc t ords for ^itautumn[ and rwinterrt, and the ^{Useful lJords} add. rrsprin6att 4nfl rrg111;11i93.rI

Tor a ^more coherent losson, it would bo desirablc to relate IsxioaL exploration not only to tho basic sa:np1e, but also to thc proJccted. oocasions for u6c. ^One lray of alproaching this _6oa). is through uso of ^Cummjngs dc-vicec. ... In a Cunrnings dcvicc, a qucstion of ^aoEe other line froo tito.Eanple o&y be i:'usi)ntcd a1c[g vith. a ^nrurnb er

of ^EentcnooB ryhich are al-ternative ansl.Jefs 01- othcr rc;oinCcrs. Thc

devicg nay a16o include othcr qucs.tions that arc very sinilar to the f iret I ^)3oth quostions and an6!.rcrs .should bc choscn r.rith carcf uI

att€ntion to how the studcnt call.u6e tllcro for morc than mcrc ling.uistio driI1. For exanple, in orre eet of lessons in l,laur-itian Clcole. . .

a uarrative samp1o of .the ^{language dcscribos} a woman goins to narket.

It containe thc scntcncc:

ZakLiu aete homi

too

Lc

rasyo

semcn.

Jacqucliiro buys _6roc erieo as ^(6hc doeo) evcry r'rock.

In l,iauritiua, do.they buy

brcad evcly ^day?

fn l4auritius, do they buy

ricc cvery day?

A Cumningc dcvioc that focusos on the lexical exDl-oration of this scntencs iE:

Questions:

Lil }ioris,

^{c sl<i} zot aste d,ipJ

too lc

^zoor?

Li1

^l.lorie

, cslii

^zot

aote

doori lc

^zoor?

.

^ctc.

229

Re ol.ndora.:

Zot.aetei

ilipo

too 1o zool.

Zot aate _doort 'too Ie a6frsD,..

etc..

^:'

_stc.

Studonte

'fir,t

'learE

1oi prououuce, unilarsteird.. aarl ianl.pr[ato theie eentancea, ancl thoa ^g

o

on id'nscliate

to

uae theE.jlE-thg

fr.a of trd-

earth, lacts: abput the. pldge ,rhglg.hg ^expeota

tg,llvo.

Thay buy

breid

ever!. dayi., Thsy buy

rioc

6vory uoolo.:

c t

u'ne convereatloner Notc,that _tbee. .oonvoreatloao..re"ra{,a la,togob,

rith

realJ'ty, for thls cr*iog"

itEvloe oontar,ae aoc.rate turoenatron ^.abon! _1ir

tho

,roqueaoy wj.th wbtch various

ltene

are boug;trt

t

^Booauce

_o! Uri*.";""

Iu Ealk€tl,g

practr.oes. and

refrr.geratlar f6ci1itr.eal'

the.dtuaralt

r.trr

^.

fiaal

oertaln .dLf,f,orenceg botueeD l{aurltlua. _{aad hLe}

}me.

^.., A ,foOtrfallJF, Luaoculate Engeer

to

^ono

of

theee quoetiola

ls jugt ar

urodg

;

^.

"

l,

Ilrg:uictloElly

_lnoobieot

_.one.

.thua;.

of

thq ^gtudent. praotloee eiuapi,x;.

oonetructioa (:ltoo

le

-coor/remear) _{,, Le} lle ,a1.go;loerula8 eose

qord;toi..j

COHPONEM 4:

tho flaal

eseontiaLcorupouoat-.of,

a

lauguage loelon ^.guldde tbe,atgrlaat _{r f}

in

ertrllorlng eueb natlbrB ad t1o

lolatiouabtp iu

both forE aaa! aeaat{S_..

botl,oer

th;

^.thhcl _Pefaon

eln6ula!

pceeent- eubJunctivo

of

e verb_atd:,!r,,

the

oorfoBPOnd.1n6

t

blrcl ^potdUn BtbsuLa$ -FroBent

iadicatlve;

^-oi

batliea

two dLffereut rraye

of

enbecldLug one-aontonco

in anotLbr;'e

botrodt'

thb defiuite

aad

th6 indeflnLto arti cl.c.

Thoee roJ.ationchills de ^thq1.'t-1 eubJeot ruattor

of

what le. ueually cal1ed.,rthe atddy_of grau6q1.; ^n.

Boeoo (1970)

(Articlo

no.4O'ln this.oolloctLon...Edeo) ai,at⁴ agulabeq aEong thteo modce

of

rotresentatl.dnr. Follovlng _blq, anguale,

,tb.,-

e;cplcrratlon'of Elru-ctlrral

relatl

gnohlps may take. .the fora,

of d3l'!q-:;,

(onactivs no$e), obarto aad cliagraoe ⁽iconl.o nroile) r ^'ots g1.onq'nr d

otie

( s'vmbollo mgde). lluch paet .autl present coDtroveray aEon5 lqnglag?

teachore turno on the ecl_at

lve

proninence

to

bo aestgne{

to

^oach _of

thooe noilee, 'and

the

order

Itr

vhlch thoy should _occupy

the

etuasnii

attention. r,earner't

synopsee...are

principally

eymbolic'.preaeatJ- ^r-'"

fado ⁽¹⁹⁵⁸⁾ Bay have beoh

right in

spoculatiag

thet rtit Lei...

^.:

posoib}€

to

learn

a

r.angu.ge !r1

.,out

over repeatiug tho oaue slateooe' ^.

twioe.rr

To d^

so,

howevel, t ou16 1^qu5re extraordiaary

oatoria\ ..

_.,

,-.! . ., l.

ExpLoRAtrpN _oF. srf,octrrni,L xatrAtlo$surps

,

_.,,