Maturation refers to developmental changes associated with the biological process of ag- ing. Th ere are individual diff erences within the “average” ages at which children reach certain developmental milestones, such as walking, talking, and controlling bladder and bowels. Maturation is a signifi cant factor in being “ready” to learn.
Caregivers or teachers who implement developmentally appropriate practices “must know about child development and the implications of this knowledge for how to teach, the content of the curriculum—what to teach and when—how to assess what children have learned, and how to adapt curriculum and instr uction to children’s individual strengths, needs, and interests. Further, they must know the particular children they teach and their families and be knowledgeable as well about the social and cultural con- text” (Bredekamp & Copple, 1997, p. 16; Copple & Bredenkamp, 2009). Some aspects of developmentally appropriate caregiving involve observation, sensitivity to children’s needs, and responsiveness. Teachers create a stimulating environment, plan engaging activities, enable children to initiate learning, and facilitate self-regulatory behavior in children. In order to enhance children’s development, ongoing assessment of their learn- ing must take place and be refl ected in the planned activities. Collaboration with fami- lies is essential.
Collaborative Caregiving
To provide a benefi cial caregiving environment for children, it is critical for profession- als who care for infants and children to collaborate with families r egarding ideologies and socialization goals (Bromer, 1999; Greenfi eld, Suzuki, & Rothstein-Fisch, 2006).
At opposite ends of a continuum are cultural frameworks (ideologies) for socialization, individualism versus collectivism (see Figure 5.5). Th e primary goal in an individualistic society is independence. Children are encouraged to be autonomous and self-fulfi lled; so- cial responsibilities are motivated by personal choice. Th e primary goal in a collectivistic society is interdependence. Children are encouraged to be subordinate and responsible in relating to others; achievements are motivated in terms of service to the group, usually the family (Greenfi eld, Suzuki, & Rothstein-Fisch, 2006). In a diverse society, such as the United States, both parents and caregivers represent diff erent degrees of individualism and collectivism. Diff erences between parents and caregivers can, for example, be observed in attitudes about sleeping arrangements (should the baby sleep alone or with its parents?), carrying (should the baby be carried in a baby carrier close to the mother’s body or in an infant seat physically separate from but in view of the mother?), feeding (should the baby be fed whenever it cries, or should a certain schedule be adhered to?) (Bhavnagri, 1997).
For another example, diversity in socialization goals between parents and caregivers can also be observed in communication styles with infants. S ome mothers tend to label objects verbally so the child will learn the names of things in the envir on-
ment (“Th at’s a car. It’s red. Look! It has four wheels.”). Other mothers tend to focus more on the sharing of an object than on labeling it (“H ere’s the car. I give it to you; you give it to me. Th ank you!”) (Greenfi eld,
Suzuki, & Rothstein-Fisch, 2006).
Perhaps par ents and nonpar ental car egivers should set aside “transition time” when the child enters a child-car e set-
ting. During this time, par ent and car egiver observe each other interact with the child and discuss socialization goals, methods, and outcomes. O bservation and discus-
sion should take place at r egular intervals. Evidence for this recommendation comes fr om a study of child-car e facilities in thr ee Canadian cities with major immigrant influx (Bernhard et al., 1998). The investigators found
What does knowledge of child development have to do with caregiving and teaching?
maturation de velopmental changes associated with the biological process of aging
How can caregivers work with parents for optimal child outcomes?
In this classroom parents and teachers are collaborating in an activity with the children.
Cengage Learning
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Ecology of Nonparental Child Care 179
that parents and teachers were unaware of their basic diff erences in socialization goals, particularly regarding respect for authority, social skills, and learning. Also, there were substantial differences over what constitutes appr opriate parenting at home. Thus, there needs to be mor e linkage between home and child car e in order to provide de- velopmentally appropriate practices for div erse groups of childr en (Bredekamp &
Copple, 1997; Copple & Bredenkamp, 2009).
Independence Oriented
Interdependence Oriented
Individual achievement is valued.
Individual achievement is valued. Group cohesiveness is valued.
Object-focused activities are emphasized.
Object-focused activities are emphasized.
People-focused activities are emphasized.
Communication of feelings is openly expressive.
Communication of feelings is openly expressive.
Communication of feelings is restricted.
• Competition is encouraged.
• Toys promoting individual enjoyment or mastery are provided.
• Self-help skills are reinforced.
• Mutual help is encouraged.
• Toys promoting turn taking or collaboration are provided.
• Helping others is reinforced.
• Children are stimulated and learn from playing with toys and things.
• Babies are put on mats or in playpens to play with things.
• Children are stimulated and learn from observing and interacting with people.
• Babies are held by adults most of the time.
• Children are encouraged to talk about feelings of happiness, sadness, fear, or anger.
• Children are permitted to question rules and authority figures.
• Children are expected to subordinate their feelings to promote the harmony of the group.
• Children are not permitted to question rules or authority figures.
Values
Activities
Communication
FIGURE 5.5 Dimensions of Cultur al Fr ameworks f or Socialization in Caregiving Settings
Source: Adapted from Bromer, 1999; Rosenthal, 2003.
IN CONTEXT
Collaborative caregiving also refers to the support child care- givers can provide to parents because of their knowledge of child development and devel- opmentally appropriate practices. Support includes the following:Listening to parents
•
Empathizing
•
Translating emotional responses into concrete ones that can be acted on
•
Modeling methods of guidance and discipline
•
Providing opportunities for support groups and parent education
•
Enabling the family to link with services in the community
•
Caregivers and Child Protection
Political ideology in the United States (a macrosystem) regarding children is that they should be protected from harm and maltreatment. If the family doesn’t do this, then the government must. Child protection laws have been enacted, such as the Child A buse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA) of 1974, which was amended and reauthorized
What is the caregiver’s legal responsibility in suspected cases of child maltreatment?
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180 CHAPTER 5
as the Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003. This act defi nes maltreatment and lists professionals who must report suspected cases to their local child protective agency.
Child caregivers and educators are among the mandated reporters. Sometimes caregivers notice that a child’s appearance, behavior, or way of interacting diff ers from that of the other children. Caregivers with child development training and experience are able to recognize deviations from what is considered normal development. States vary in their specifi c defi nitions of maltreatment and their procedures as to when and how to report it.
(Please go to the Education CourseMate website for this book to see a detailed listing of the “Indications of Possible Maltreatment.”) Intervention programs for maltreatment are discussed in Chapter 10.
Children who are maltreated do not usually “tell.” They may be distr ustful of all adults. Th ey are even unlikely to express hatred toward abusing parents. Th ey have little understanding of the parents’ behavior. Often children believe the abuse occurred because they did something wrong. Th us, they may be confused and even frightened by another adult’s concern. Th ey may also worry about their parents’ retaliation if they tell (O’Brien, 1984). With this understanding, child caregivers and educators can be involved in identi- fying, supporting, providing a stable environment, and modeling ways to express feelings appropriately and to resolve confl icts.
Physical abuse, exemplifi ed by the bruise on this child’s eye, must be reported to child protective services.
George Glod/Superstock
Summary
Nonparental child care, or day care, refers to care given
• to children by persons other than parents during the day or part of the day. It can be at the child’s home, at an- other home, or in a center.
Components of optimal quality care include (1) a care-
• giver who provides warm, loving care and guidance for the child and works with the family to ensure that the child develops in the best way possible; (2) a setting that keeps the child safe, secur e, and healthy; and (3) ac- tivities that help the child develop emotionally, socially, mentally, and physically.
Quality care is also judged b y whether the program is
•
developmentally appropriate. Objective measures of quality include size of the overall group, caregiver–child ratios, and caregiver training in child development.
Nonparental child care and early childhood educational
•
practices have been aff ected by macrosystems—political ideology, culture/ethnicity, economics, and science/
technology.
Chronosystem infl uences in nonparental child care are
•
evidenced by historical changes in the U nited States.
Child care began in this country as a social service (cus- todial focus) for immigrants. By the 1960s, child-care programs began to fl ourish (educational focus) because of the increase in mothers of y oung children entering the labor force.
Studies have examined the emotional, social, and intel-
• lectual correlates and consequences of child care for the child. Children who attend quality day-care programs
do not diff er in their attachment to their mothers from children cared for at home. Childr en in day-care pro- grams diff er somewhat from children who are not in day care in their relationships with peers; those in day-care programs tend to be more self-suffi cient, outgoing, and aggressive with others. Th e intellectual performance of children who attend day care is higher than that of chil- dren from similar family backgrounds who did not at- tend a quality child-care program.
A federally funded program for children who are dis-
•
advantaged, Head Start provides intervention to enable such children to enter school ready to learn. Th er e are many kinds of intervention programs, but for the child to become a competent member of society, the child’s family must be involved.
A mesosystem infl uence on nonparental child care in-
•
cludes links with the school and community . Schools can extend hours to care for children and include those under the age of 5. Child care in the community is ben- efi cial economically. It is less costly to fund child-car e programs with tax dollars than it is to fund other ser- vices such as special education, welfare, or programs for juvenile delinquents. Child care also provides work for adults in the community.
Another mesosystem infl uence on nonparental child care
• involves links with government and business. Government provides funding of child care and tax credits to families using child care. Business may provide services for their employees, such as leaves, fl extime, fi nancial assistance for
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Ecology of Nonparental Child Care 181
PURPOSE To assess the socialization that occurs in the child- care facilities in your community.
1. Look in the phone book or online and choose two child-care facilities in y our community to visit.
Note whether they are half- or full-day facilities and whether they ser ve infants/toddlers, preschoolers, and/or school-agers.
2. Describe each facility—physical setting, teacher–
child ratio, ages of children, hours, fees, equipment (outdoor and indoor), toys, and creative materials.
3. Observe the interaction between the adults and the children. Describe.
4. Observe the interaction betw een the childr en.
Describe.
5. What kind of curriculum is implemented? Describe.
6. Is there parent involvement and/or education in the program? Describe.
7. Are there support services (health, nutrition, coun- seling, referrals) for families of the enrolled children?
Describe.
Activity
child care, resources and referrals, in-kind contribution to child-care facilities in the community, and/or on-site care.
Diff erent types of nonparental child care (in-home care,
• family day care, center-based care) have diff erent eff ects on socialization because of the varying opportunities for interacting with adults, other children, and materials.
Different curriculum models have different effects on
• socialization because of the specific skills a pr ogram emphasizes.
Four theory-based curriculum models found in center-
•
based nonparental child-care programs include the cog- nitively oriented, direct instruction, Montessori, and developmental interaction curricula. Teacher-directed curricula, such as dir ect instruction, generally pr o- duce children who score higher on achievement tests.
Learner-directed curricula, such as M ontessori and developmental interaction (as w ell as the cognitiv ely oriented curriculum), generally tend to foster autonomy, problem-solving skills, and cooperation.
New preschool curricula aiming to prepare children for
• a changing world are “Th e Five Minds” and the “Tools of the Mind.”
Th e ideologies of caregivers infl uence their socialization
•
practices. These ideologies aff ect caregivers’ language and social interaction with children.
Caregivers or teachers who implement developmentally
• appropriate practices must know about child develop- ment and how to teach curriculum accordingly.
To provide a benefi cial caregiving environment for chil-
•
dren, it is critical for professionals who care for infants and children to collaborate with families regarding so- cialization goals, including their position along the spec- trum of individualism versus collectivism.
Political ideology in the United States regarding children
• is that they must be protected. Caregivers and educators are mandated by law to report child maltreatment, in- cluding physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse and exploi- tation, and emotional abuse or deprivation.
Related Readings
Bedrova, E., & Leong, D. (2007). Tools of the mind: Th e Vygotskian approach to early childhood (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice-Hall.
Bender, J., Flatter, C. H., & Sorrentino, J. (2005). Half a childhood:
Quality programs for out-of-school hours. Nashville, TN: School Age Notes.
Elkind, D. (1987). Miseducation: Preschoolers at risk. New York:
Knopf.
Helfer, M. E., Kempe, R. S., & Krugman, R. D. (Eds.). (1999). Th e battered child (5th ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Isenberg, J. P., & Jalongo, M. R. (2003). Major trends and issues in early childhood education (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.
Leach, P. (2010). Child care today: Getting it right for everyone. New York: Knopf.
Resources
CYFERnet—practical research-based information on children, youth, and families http://www.cyfernet.org
National Association for the Education of Young Children—promoting excellence in early childhood education
http://www.naeyc.org
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development—national research study on the relationship between child care and child development
http://www.nichd.nih.gov
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