Th is chapter provides an understanding of what a family is, what a family does, ho w diff erent families adapt to change, and how diff erent families cope with external forces.
Figure 3.1 shows a bioecological model of the contexts, or systems, inv olved in family interaction with other ecosystems over time. Family systems theory looks more within the family, viewing it as a whole, in terms of its str ucture and organizational patterns, and viewing its members in terms of ho w they interact with one another (Parke & Buriel, 2006). Family systems theory is used by many therapists to understand the diff erent ways in which families carry out basic functions.
What is the purpose of families and how do they work?
Chronosystem
Parents’
Work
(Microsystem s)
(Exosystems)
(Macrosystems) (Mesosystem
s)
Guest Speakers Friends
Going to the Movies
Censorship
Having Friends at One’
s Home
Confer ences Peers
Media Community
Family
School and Child Care
Society Culture/
Ethnicity Religion
Science/
Technology Economics
Political Ideology Child
Sc Boar hool Social ds
Ser vices
Comm unity Boar
ds Feder
al/Stat e Commissions
FIGURE 3.1 A Bioecological Model of Human Development The family is a primary infl uence on the child’s development.
Cengage Learning
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Ecology of the Family 77
In Chapters 1 and 2, the aims, methods, and outcomes of socialization w ere dis- cussed, and the agents of socialization identifi ed. Here, the family, the primary agent of socialization, is explored. A family is a micr osystem. How a family is defi ned has important implications regarding issues of income tax fi lings, adoption and foster-care practices, employee benefi ts, property rights, inheritance, and so on. How states resolve the debate over the legality of same-sex marriage will also have signifi cant eff ects on such issues.
The classic (structural-functional) definition of a family, according to sociologist George Murdock (1962, p. 19), is “a social group characterized by common residence, economic cooperation, and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children (bio- logical or adopted) of the sexually cohabiting adults.” How many families do you know that fit this classic defi nition?
Today, relationships that do not conform to Murdock’s defi nition are more common than those that do, illustrating the impact of societal change on the family system’s form and function. To accommodate changes in family patterns, the U.S. Bureau of the Cen- sus defi nes a family as “two or more persons related by birth, marriage, or adoption, who reside together.” Th us, a family can be two or more adult siblings living together, a parent and child or children, two adults who are related by marriage but have no children, or adults who adopt a child.
Some states have legalized same-sex marriages. In 2004, Massachusetts became the fi rst state to do so. Other states and cities have legally recognized certain unrelated peo- ple in caring relationships who live together in a household as a “ family.” Th ese laws pertaining to “domestic partnerships,” “reciprocal partnerships,” or “civil unions” are intended to provide same-sex couples, foster parents, related pairs (mother/daughter, two brothers), and stepfamilies with rights and privileges r elated to health insurance policies, medical and educational decisions, emplo yment leave policies, employment benefi ts, annuities, and pensions.
It is important to understand the changes in the concept of the defi nition of family structure, not only for legally related issues, but also because these changes aff ect the func- tions that families perform, the roles its members play, and the relationships its members have with one another, thereby aff ecting the socialization of children.
Family—Ideal or Real?
Is family a structure or function?
What were some of your family traditions?
What about your family was healthy/unhealthy?
Basic Family Structures
Families are organized in diff erent ways around the world. A family consisting of a hus- band and wife and their children is called a nuclear family. For the children, such a fam- ily is the family of orientation, which means the family into which one is born. For the parents, the nuclear family is the family of procreation, the family that develops when one marries and has children (see Figure 3.2). In the nuclear family, the wife and husband depend on each other for companionship and the children depend on their parents for aff ection and socialization.
Th e signifi cance of the nuclear family structure is that it is the main source of children and so provides the basis for the perpetuation of the society. Most societies assign respon- sibility for the care and socialization of children to the couple that produces or adopts them and sanction the sexual union of a male and a female b y law or tradition—in our society, by legal marriage. Th e institution of marriage, then, serves not only to legalize a
family any two or more related people living in one household
What is your concept of a family?
nuclear family a family consisting of a husband and wife and their children
family of orientation the family into which one is born
family of procreation the family that develops when one marries and has children
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78 CHAPTER 3
sexual union but also to fi x the obligation toward children who result from that sexual union.
Th e extended family pattern consists of relatives of the nuclear family who are eco- nomically and emotionally dependent on each other. Th ey may or may not live nearby (see Figure 3.3).
In some cultural groups, such as Native Americans, Asian Americans, and I talian Americans, great emphasis is placed on the extended family (obligation to family super- sedes obligation to the self). In these cultural groups, tradition assigns certain obligations and responsibilities to various members of the extended family—for example, who social- izes the children, who decides how the family resources are allocated, and who cares for needy family members. Some cultures emphasize the mother’s side of the family as having formal authority and dominance. Th ese families are known as matriarchal. A contempo- rary example would be the royal family in Great Britain headed by Queen Elizabeth II.
Other cultures emphasize the father’s relatives as having formal authority and dominance.
Th ese families are known as patriarchal. Th is organizational pattern is much more com- mon in the world than is the matriarchal. Examples of patriarchal families can be found extended family r elatives
of the nuclear family who are economically and emotionally dependent on each other
matriarchal family f amily in which the mother has formal authority and dominance
patriarchal family f amily
in which the father has formal authority and dominance
Bill’s Nuclear Family of Orientation
Bill’s Nuclear Family of Procreation Bill’s Parents
Bill Bill’s Wife
Bill’s Children
FIGURE 3.2 Nuclear Family
Mother’s Mother–Mother’s Father Father’s Mother–Father’s Father
Mother–Father
Mother’s Brother–Spouse Father’s Sister–Spouse
Children
Children Children
Nuclear Family FIGURE 3.3 Extended Family
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Ecology of the Family 79
in literature (as in Biblical stories, Roman classics, or Shakespeare) and in the media (as in Th e Godfather, Th e Sound of Music, or the Big Love TV series).
In the United States, both sides of the extended family are generally regarded as equal, or egalitarian. Your mother’s parents have as much legal authority and responsibility over you as do your father’s parents. If something happened to your parents and they could no longer care for you, both sets of grandparents would have equal claim to your custody.
Regardless of whether your extended family is matriarchal, patriarchal, or egalitar- ian, its main function is suppor t; relatives are the people you turn to when y ou need help or when you have joys to share. Because, in today’s society, many nuclear families do not have an extended family for support (for reasons that include moving, divorce, remarriage, and death), the people they turn to for help might be friends, neighbors, co- workers, or children’s teachers (see Figure 3.4). Th ese people assume some of the tradi- tional support functions of the extended family and become one’s personal network (Dean, 1984). People who have no such personal network have to rely on the formal network of society—professionals or government agencies—for support (Garbarino, 1992). Support services provided by the formal network are infl uenced by politics, economics, culture, and technology. For a political example, the federally funded pr eschool program Head Start was launched by the Democrats and later experienced a reduction in funding under the Republicans. For an economic example, the cultural norm of working for a living was a signifi cant factor in changing government fi nancial support for needy families—from welfare to workfare. For a technology example, cell phones and computers compete for family members’ time together.
egalitarian family f amily in which both sides of the extended family are regarded as equal
INFLUENCES OF LARGER SOCIETY
FORMAL NETWORK PERSONAL NETWORK
IMMEDIATE FAMILY
4. 3. 2. 1.
Doctor Politics
Friends
Employer In-laws
School Principal
Cousins
Cultur e
Teachers
Technology Landlord
Co-workers
Psychologist Neighbors
Depar tment of Social Services
Economics
Grandparents Spouse Childr
en Par
ents
FIGURE 3.4 Sources of Family Support Source: Adapted from Dean, 1984.
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80 CHAPTER 3
Basic Family Functions
Th e family performs certain basic functions, generation after generation, enabling it to survive and adapt. Th e following basic functions may vary by culture and may be im- pacted by economic, health, or social stresses.
Reproduction.
■ Th e family ensures that the society’s population will be maintained;
that is, a sufficient number of childr en will be born and car ed for to replace the members who die.
Socialization/education.
■ Th e family ensures that the society’s values, beliefs, atti- tudes, knowledge, skills, and techniques will be transmitted to the young.
Assignment of social roles.
■ Th e family provides an identity for its off spring (racial, ethnic, religious, socioeconomic, and gender roles). An identity involves behavior and obligations. For example, a Jewish person may not eat pork and may feel obliged to give to charity. A Chinese person may eat with chopsticks and defer to the author- ity of his or her elders. A person born into a high socioeconomic status may be pr es- sured to choose a spouse from a similar family background. In some families, girls are socialized to do housework and be caregivers and boys to be breadwinners.
Economic support.
■ Th e family provides shelter, nourishment, and protection. In some families, all members except very young children contribute to the economic function by producing goods. In other families, one or both parents earn the money that pays for goods the entire family consumes.
Nurturance/emotional support.
■ Th e family provides the child’s fi rst experience in social interaction. Th is interaction is intimate, nurturing, and enduring, thus provid- ing emotional security for the child. Th e family cares for its members when they are ill, hurt, or aging.