While the indirect effects described are serious, they affect a specific and limited population, but the environmental and health issues associated with modern weaponry are likely to be global in their impact. The damage caused by chemical, biological and nuclear weapons may lead both to the widespread distribution of serious pollution and to economic disruption internationally. Guerrilla warfare, terrorism, and deliberate sabotage also present potential threats to the immediate environment.
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Chemical warfare
Chemical warfare, introduced on a large scale in World War I, involves the con- trolled release of toxic chemicals, usually nerve toxins or intensely irritating agents.
When used in the field, these poisons are indiscriminate in their effects and may affect civilians or troops on either side, as well as wildlife or domestic animals.
These agents can cause considerable local damage and may wipe out entire villages.
Although chemical weapons have been outlawed since 1899 by an international agreement known as the Hague Declaration, there have been many documented instances of their use and many more suspected incidents in which absolute proof has been lacking or controversial.
Chemical weapons have been used by terrorist groups. In 1995 a terrorist group in Japan, Aum Shinrikyo, released ‘sarin’ (a nerve gas) on the Tokyo subway. Twelve people were killed, and over 5,000 suffered the effects of the gas.
Biological warfare
Biological warfare, which is even more difficult to regulate, involves the controlled release of pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. In the few instances in which it has been tried, there have been limited outbreaks of disease involving local residents and wildlife. The Geneva Convention has outlawed these weapons since 1925. The most recent publicized use of biological agents was a series of attacks where anthrax (a potentially fatal bacteria) was sent through the post to various targets in the USA in 2001. The attacks infected 23 people, killed 5, and caused widespread disruption as buildings were evacuated and shut down.
Nuclear warfare
The only time that nuclear weapons have been deliberately used in war was by the USA against Japan at the end of World War II. Atom bombs were dropped in 1945 on the cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. The consequence of that action was the death of 210,000 people by the end of the year; more died subsequently due to radiation illness and there remains a legacy of second-generation birth defects and cancers. There was also a great deal of destruction at the site of the bombs and in the surrounding areas of both cities. The testing of nuclear weapons in the South Pacific and elsewhere has had important environmental impacts and has affected the original inhabitants, who had to be moved from the area. Other issues surrounding nuclear arms include local contamination from inadequate or unsafe storage, accidental release of nuclear material and acts of terrorism.
Guerrilla warfare, terrorism and deliberate environmental destruction
Many conflicts in the twentieth century involve guerrilla warfare rather than full- scale conflict. This avoids direct engagement and relies instead on periodic ambush.
The dominant force will destroy villages and the countryside, causing environ- mental destruction in order to flush out the guerrilla groups. For example, during the Vietnam War, ‘Agent Orange’ (a herbicide containing 2,4,D and 2,4,5,T, both of which contain dioxins as contaminants) was sprayed on the jungle to cause defoli- ation and reveal the guerrillas. It has been blamed for cancers, diabetes, and birth defects in the local populations and health problems in the US military veterans.
180 Environment, Health and Sustainable Development
Similarly, landmines are a serious issue world-wide; there are 15,000–20,000 casualties each year from landmines and unexploded ordinance. Many of these are in countries that are no longer in a state of war. The widespread presence of such mines in countries such as Mozambique and Angola means that large tracts of land are unable to be used for cropping and agriculture. These countries can ill afford to lose arable land.
Ecological vandalism is another consequence of warfare. The oil-field fires started by the Iraqi Army in the Kuwait War had a limited military purpose, but caused ecological destruction and air pollution for many weeks until they were brought under control.
Until the attacks on the World Trade Center and other targets on the 11th of September 2001, the public health impact of terrorism was relatively small scale.
The attacks killed 2,749 in the World Trade Center alone and injured tens of thou- sands; billions of dollars worth of damage was done. Terrorist attacks continue in all parts of the world. In 2003 there were 208 acts of international terrorism with 625 people killed and 3,646 injured. While the number of attacks and deaths decreased in 2003, the number injured increased as there were more attacks on
‘soft’ targets such as places of worship, hotels and commercial districts (US Department of State 2004). This type of attack interferes with civil society and causes stress as well as physical damage.
Summary
The environmental, health and economic costs of disasters – natural as well as man-made – are immense. In the past 20 years, three million deaths have been caused by natural disasters alone. Complex climate-related disasters are likely to increase as a result of global warming, threatening already vulnerable com- munities. Planning for disaster prevention and relief is essential for natural and man-made disasters. Wars and terrorism affect thousands of people both directly and indirectly and have the potential to inflict great harm on the environment and human health.
References
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BBC (2005) Update on T http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/4126019.stm, Tuesday, 1 March, 2005.
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Further reading
Blaikie P, Cannon T, Davies I and Wisner B (2004) At Risk (2nd edn). London: Routledge.
Centre for Epidemiology of Disasters: http://www.cred.be Em Dat: Centre for Epidemiology of Disasters http://www.cred.be
Handmer J (2003) Adaptive capacity: what does it mean in the concept of natural hazards? in Smith JB, Klein RTJ, and Huq S. (eds) Climate Change and Adaptive Capacity. London:
Imperial College Press.
International campaign to ban landmines: http://www.icbl.org/
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies: http://www.icrc.org/
News24 (2005) http://www.news24.com/News24/World/Tsunami_Disaster/0,,2-10-1777_
1667234,00.html, Report for 25 February 2005.
Noji E (ed) (1996) Public Health Consequences of Disasters. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Pan American Health Organization disaster archive: http://www.paho.org/English/dd/Ped/
disasterarchives.htm
Regional Disaster Information Centre, Americas and the Caribbean (CRID): http://
www.crid.or.cr/crid/ing/index_ing.html
WHO (2005) http://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/asia_tsunami/en/