There are special considerations surrounding waste management in low and middle income countries. The health impacts of waste that is not collected (including injury, intoxication, infection) can affect the vulnerable in a com- munity. In some areas, micro-economies develop that are based on the picking over of waste (whether collected or not) and selling on any reusable or recyclable material. The health of these waste pickers – often children – is of concern and is the subject of a number of studies and initiatives to improve their circumstances.
Table 6.4 Potential health effects from an efficient incinerator Substance Potential effects on
workers at a facility
Potential effects from a single facility on a local population
Potential effects from multiple facilities on a broader population
Particulate matter Substantial minimal minimal
Dioxins Substantial minimal substantial
Lead Substantial minimal moderate
Mercury Substantial minimal moderate
Other metals Substantial minimal moderate
Acidic gases Moderate negligible negligible
Acidic aerosols Moderate minimal minimal
Source: Committee on Health Effects of Waste Incineration (2000)
84 Environment, Health and Sustainable Development
Activity 6.2
Read the extract by Selvam (1994) and then give a summary of how Panaji hopes to achieve an efficient and sustainable waste management system.
An example of an integrated waste management system in a developing country
Panaji, the capital of Goa, is a small but well-developed town with a population of 42,915. Panaji Municipal Council (PMC) is responsible for the collection, transportation and disposal of solid wastes generated within the municipal limits. Households and establishments including hospitals, private nursing homes, restaurants, etc., deposit their wastes in communal waste storage bins, for subsequent collection (manual) and trans- portation to an undeveloped and unsanitary dumping site. A large number of waste pickers make their livelihood by collecting a variety of recyclable wastes from bins and the disposal site. Households (40 per cent) and restaurants (27 per cent) are the two major waste generators. About 1.8 tons, 8 per cent of total wastes, are collected daily by waste pickers for recycling.
The major issues raised by the community are: inadequate number and faulty design of bins, irregular clearing by PMC workers, and the wet and unhygienic conditions around the bins. Meetings with representatives of other major waste generators, restaurants, hospitals and nursing homes revealed their preference for a personalized ‘door-to- door’ system and their willingness to pay for the improved service level.
The social survey findings formed an important basis for the development of a sustain- able solid waste management model. For example, the Panaji survey provided some unexpected results; people in Panaji are not interested in ‘door-to-door’ collection of wastes; people are willing to make a monthly payment of Rs.10/- (US$ 1 = INR 31.80 6/
94 rate) per household for a communal primary waste collection system with an improved bin design and daily clearance through a mechanized system.
Various disposal options such as composting, pelletization, incineration, etc. were evalu- ated. The potential for resource recovery and revenue generation influenced the deci- sion for composting organic wastes from vegetable markets and restaurants.
Recommendations to improve the existing solid waste management situation:
• Replace the existing bottomless cement concrete bins with suitable numbers of metallic bins, a minimum of one bin within 50 m of all households.
• Collect the restaurant wastes from ‘door-to-door’, twice a day, on a full cost recovery basis. The six existing closed body vehicles should be used for servicing 200 restaurants per day.
• Collect the infectious wastes separately from hospitals and nursing homes for incineration at the Goa Government Medical College Hospital, on a full cost recovery basis.
• Use the existing garbage compactor exclusively for collecting the organic wastes from the municipal market.
Waste 85
Waste disposal:
• Install a manual composting plant for processing eight tons of restaurant and market wastes everyday. With proper marketing, it is not only possible to fully recover the production cost of Rs. 325/- per ton, but also possible to make a modest profit.
• Develop the abandoned laterite stone quarry pit into a sanitary landfill site. Improve the existing dump site operation (until the new site is developed) by spreading the waste and covering it with construction wastes using a hired bulldozer on a regular basis.
• Sustain the waste pickers’, contribution to resource recovery, by organizing them into a formal group with the help of a local NGO, providing them with tools to sort out wastes, raising their status to that of waste collectors, and providing either free or low-cost medical facilities through the state health department.
Feedback
In order to be sustainable, the waste management scheme has to include all aspects of waste, from production to disposal. This strategy did not cover waste prevention, but did propose a cost-effective method of dealing with waste after consultation with businesses and communities. Consumers are prepared to pay to have a more efficient and hygienic service. Composting will make a profit and waste pickers will have improved livelihoods. The local authority was able to ensure that resources were used effectively and that the system maximized waste collection and its subsequent recycling or disposal.
Summary
Waste is produced as the result of domestic and industrial activity. There are a number of ways to deal with waste, including reduction, recycling, minimization and disposal. The waste hierarchy can help to establish the best and most environ- mentally efficient method for dealing with waste, leaving disposal as the least pre- ferred option. Disposal methods have the potential to harm both the environment and human health if not properly designed or maintained. The study of waste on human health is complicated by the difficulties of establishing exposure routes and the often unknown nature of the contaminants.
References
BMA (1991) Hazardous Waste and Human Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brown P and Clapp R. (2002) Looking back on Love Canal. Public Health Report 117(2): 95–8.
Committee on Health Effects of Waste Incineration (2000) Waste Incineration and Public Health.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
DEFRA (2004) Waste Implementation Programme: One Year on. London: DEFRA.
Elliott P, Briggs D, Morris S et al. (2001) Risk of adverse birth outcomes in populations living near landfill sites. British Medical Journal 323(7309): 363–8.
86 Environment, Health and Sustainable Development
Eurostat, EEA on specific waste streams: http://dataservice.eea.eu.int/atlas/viewdata/
viewpub.asp?id=392. Accessed 20 June 2005.
Office for National Statistics (1999) www.statistics.gov.uk
Selvam P (1994) Community-based SWM project preparation, 20th WEDC Conference, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
World Bank (1999) What a waste: solid waste management in Asia: www.worldbank.org/html/
fpd/urban/publicat/whatawaste.pdf
Further reading
Gupta S (2004) Rethinking waste management: www.indiatogether.org/2004/apr/
env-rethink.htm
South West Public Health Observatory (Waste Management and Public Health):
http://www.swpho.org.uk/waste/impact_health.htm
Vrijheid M (2000) Health effects of residence near hazardous waste landfill sites: a review of epidemiologic literature. Environmental Health Perspective 108 (Suppl 1): 101–12.
World Bank Urban Solid Waste Management Sourcebook: http://www.worldbank.org/urban/
usolid waste management/