Industry relies very heavily on transport (the intake of raw materials and the later shipment of processed products, for example), and draws heavily on local or imported energy sources. As such, it is a major source of air and water, noise and other waste pollutants, some of them hazardous. The health of both the workforce and the general population is directly affected by industry, not only through daily discharges of waste into the environment, but also because of industrial accidents.
The environmental and health impacts of energy use are discussed in more detail in Chapter 5.
Various industries have the potential for wide contamination of the environ- ment, including the pollution of air, water and soil. For example, the coal mining industry can contribute significantly to air pollution through dust (from extraction, storage and transportation), burning slag heaps and the risk of fire and explosion. Both surface and ground water can be contaminated with mine water and the land is damaged by disturbance, erosion and subsidence as well as the placing of large slag heaps of material that cannot be used for other purposes. Other industries have similarly wide-reaching environmental effects, many of them more potentially damaging. Exactly how the industry will affect the environment depends mainly on the nature of the emissions and these include:
• product – the type and scale of production
• the manufacturing process
Environment and human activity 45
• raw materials – what is used and in what quantities, including the energy for transport to the plant and any involved in extraction
• use of natural resources during the manufacturing process, such as water and air
• use of energy – its source and quantity required
• size of manufacturing plant
• amount of toxic material stored at site
• quality and efficiency of abatement technology – if any.
Other important considerations are:
• natural environmental conditions – topography, rivers, soil type, wind, etc.
• location of human settlements (WHO 1997).
This list clearly shows that the environmental impact of industry is not only as a result of the manufacturing process, but also arises from the collection of raw materials, the production of energy, transport and final destination of the goods. A further important factor is also the impact of the disposal of the packaging waste and, eventually, the goods themselves.
With the Industrial Revolution in the UK (1760–1830) and later, in other parts of the developed world, came air pollution. Textbooks that cover the Industrial Revolution contain many images of huge factories, belching out smoke over the surrounding areas. Modern industry, although better controlled, is still responsible for a large quantity of emissions of sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides (NOx), hydrocarbons and particulates. In addition to these, some specific industries have their own specific chemical emissions associated with them; you will read more on the effects of the main pollutants in Chapter 8.
Water pollution can occur at several stages in the industrial process. Water may be used as part of the manufacturing process before being discharged back into waterways or onto soil, for example, as a coolant during the process of electricity generation. Other waste products may be released into rivers, streams, lakes or seas. It is worth pointing out, however, that although water pollution may affect the quality of the water and the ecological balance in the environment, it may not damage human health directly.
Soil contamination can occur as a result of settling air pollution, precipitation or direct application. Dumping of waste can lead to water pollution if there is sub- sequent leaching or run-off into a water source. In Chapter 6, the fate of hazardous waste from a variety of industries is considered in more detail.
Activity 4.3
1 Significant pollution can be discharged by small-scale industries. What are the potential detriments and benefits of small-scale industry for both the environment and human health?
2 Note the direct effects of industry on the workers involved. Are they beneficial or damaging?
3 A further important feature of the relationship between industry and health is the occurrence of occupational accidents. These have the potential to significantly affect workers’ health, particularly in areas with few or poor regulations for indus- trial and working practices. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 demonstrate workplace fatalities in
46 Environment, Health and Sustainable Development
Figure 4.1Fatal workplace injuries by occupational sector, Australia, 1997–2002 Source: ILO, LABORSTA Labour Statistics Database. Geneva
Figure 4.2Fatal workplace injuries by occupational sector, Kyrgyzstan, 1997–2002 Source: ILO, LABORSTA Labour Statistics Database. Geneva
Australia, a high income country in the Pacific, and Kyrgyzstan, a country in transition that was previously part of the Soviet Union. Compare these graphs and note down the differences and similarities in the trends and overall rates in the two countries.
Feedback
1 Small industry brings the environmental impact of waste disposal and air pollution directly to the local community, counteracting those potential benefits provided by employment of the local population. This has a greater impact in developing countries, where small-scale industry tends to dominate, contributing substantially to the local economy. Small-scale industries such as mining and metal smelting are very polluting.
The proximity of these industries to human settlements can lead to serious environ- mental and health problems. These industries can be made more efficient and less polluting by the use of environmentally sustainable technologies, but unfortunately these technologies are often expensive or difficult to source. The regulation of small- scale industry is a problem for developing countries; the industry provides much needed income and employment for the local area as well as for the associated services such as shops, food outlets and transport and so regulators are often reluctant to intervene. Industry is essential for local development and prosperity and brings health benefits directly through work and a strong economy. Policy makers must strike a balance between economic progress and the environmental imperatives of sustainable development.
2 The most significant effect upon health by industry is employment – employed people have better health than unemployed people and are better able to afford good quality services, housing, food, and other goods for themselves and their families.
However, working in some industries leads to exposure to pollution from air, water and solid waste which could be potentially harmful to health.
3 There are more than twice as many fatal accidents per 100 000 workers in Kyrgyzstan – 8 per 100 000 compared with 3.2 per 100 000 in Australia. Rates have fallen in both countries over the period covered.
Mining and quarrying are the major contributors to workplace fatalities in Kyrgyzstan.
The reason isn’t given but one can surmise that it could be due to the scale of the industry or to poor occupational health and safety regulations. Australia has very strict regulations to protect workers and members of the public.
The International Labour Organization (ILO) believes that there is under-reporting of accidents, particularly in the informal sector of an economy. A far greater number of non-fatal injuries are reported in Australia than in Kyrgyzstan. This may be because Australia bases its figures on compensation claims for injury so there is an incentive for the worker or employer to notify the accident. Compensation is more likely to be paid in a high income economy. In Kyrgyzstan the figures are based on the official labour inspectorate. It is possible that injuries are under- reported, so as not to draw attention to the poorly managed plant/industry and its working practices. It is also possible that managers report serious injuries but not all injuries. A further complication is a lack of standardization in data collection and
Environment and human activity 49
reporting; as different countries collect data in different ways, it is difficult to make comparisons of occupational injury rates between them.