now and in the future.
The targets set in the Kyoto Protocol can be achieved in a number of ways. Coun- tries can reduce emissions by changing the technologies used, by making use of energy-efficient processes and by changing the energy economy from carbon-based fuels to hydrogen, wind and other renewable sources. This can be achieved by carbon trading whereby allowances of carbon emissions are bought and sold, often between developed and developing countries. Any carbon traded can come from that which is already permitted for emission, from any reductions in emissions (via new technology, energy efficiency, renewable energy), or can be offset against emissions, for example, via carbon sequestration (capture of carbon in biomass such as forests). The first carbon trade took place in March 2003 between Shell, the global oil company, and Nuon (a Dutch-based multinational that supplies power to users in Belgium and Germany), in which Nuon bought a significant volume of allowances from Shell for 2005.
Article 12 of the protocol also supports the Clean Development Mechanism, which allows high income countries to assist low and middle income countries in using cleaner energy sources such as solar panels. If Clean Development Mechanism pro- jects result in ‘certified emission reductions’, then the high income country can use the certified emission reduction to comply with their own quantified emissions reduction commitments.
Climate change and sustainable development
The potential consequences of climate change are a significant challenge to the environment, the global economy, and human health, with changes affecting future generations. Sustainable development is crucial to the success of climate change mitigation. However, it is not just future generations that are at risk; some communities are already experiencing the effects of climate change such as small islands, developing states and the high Arctic in particular. Action on climate change requires:
• a focus on equity and sustainable development by working at different levels
• constructive engagement at the international level
• strong national policies as well as action by individuals.
Equity
Climate change will not have an equal effect across the environment and the different populations of the globe. The USA currently produces 25 per cent of the annual greenhouse gas emissions, yet has only 5 per cent of the world population.
The ability of a country or a region to cope with climate change depends on its wealth, technology and infrastructure. Low and middle income countries do not have the industry, transportation, or intensive agricultural practices that are
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the cause of global warming. However, they have limited capacity to protect them- selves against the adverse consequences and as you have read, may be particularly vulnerable to the effects, for example, sea-level rises would affect Bangladesh and low-lying Pacific islands.
Dealing with climate change is a challenge for environmental and health equity.
Choosing not to use what is often more expensive, energy-efficient technology will decrease the imbalance of ‘equity’ at least in the short term, but will increase the problems of global warming (Patz and Kovats 2002).
The IPCC recognizes that sustainable development is a key factor in climate change mitigation (Figure 10.6). In order to succeed in the long term, policies and actions will need to work with other environmental protection initiatives, promote eco- nomic growth and enhance social equity.
Activity 10.3
What are the main moral, political and scientific problems associated with human- induced climate change?
Figure 10.6 Key elements of sustainable development and interconnections Adapted from IPCC (2001)
Source: http://www.ipcc.ch/present/graphics/2001syr/small/00.22.jpg
Global climate change 153
Feedback
As you will have noted, the first moral issue is the bequest to future generations of an ecologically damaged world. The second is that although the change has been caused mainly by the rich industrial countries, the entire world will suffer – and the poorer countries are likely to suffer the most.
The main political issue arises from the last point: the poorer countries are entitled to industrialize but cannot afford the expensive technology needed to do so in an environmentally protective manner. If the whole world is to benefit from economic development, the rich countries will have to aid the poorer countries in order to prevent an even greater build-up of greenhouse gases.
The scientific problem arises from the uncertainty inherent in the data: it is not known precisely how great a cutback in energy use is required to bring about a stabilization or reversal of the climatic damage believed to have been caused so far.
Summary
In this chapter, you explored one of the main global health issues, that of climate change. The probable cause of climate change appears to be human-induced and there are a number of direct and indirect health consequences. The Kyoto Protocol aims to reduce the amount of carbon emissions and slow the effect of global warming. You also read of the importance of sustainable development and equity in achieving results and the uncertainties in making estimates of the effects.
References
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2000) Special Report on Methodological and Technological Issues in Technology Transfer. Metz B, Davidson OR, Martens JM, van Rooijen S and van Wie McGrory L (eds). New York: Cambridge University Press.
IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Report of Working Group II to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report.
McCarthy JJ, Canziani OF, Leary NA, Dokken DJ and White KS (eds). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kovats RS, Ebi K and Menne B (2003) Methods of Assessing Human Health Vulnerability and Public Health Adaptation to Climate Change. WHO, Health Canada, UNEP, WMO, Copenhagen.
(Health and Global Environmental Change Series, No. 1). http://www.euro.who.int/
document/E81923.pdf
Kovats S, Wolf T and Menne B (2004) Heatwave of August 2003: provisional estimates of the impact on mortality. Eurosurveillance Weekly 8(11): http://www.eurosurveillance.org/ew/
2004/040311.asp#7
McMichael AJ (1993) Planetary Overload: Global Environmental Change and the Health of the Human Species. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Patz JA and Kovats RS (2002) Hot spots in climate change and human health. British Medical Journal 325: 1094–8.
Singh RBK, Hales S, de Wet N et al. (2001) The influence of climate variation and change on diarrhoeal disease in the Pacific Islands. Environmental Health Perspectives 109(2): 155–9.
WHO (2000) Workshop report: climate variability and change and their health effects in Pacific Island countries. Apia, Samoa, 25–28 July.
WHO (2004) Using Climate to Predict Disease Outbreaks: A Review: WHO/SDE/OEH/04.01 2004.
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Further reading
Eco equity, campaigning for equal rights to global common resources: http://
www.ecoequity.org/
IISD Linkages, resource for environment and development policy makers: http://www.iisd.ca/
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: http://www.ipcc.ch/
McMichael AJ, Campbell-Lendrum D, Corvalan C, Ebi KL, Githeko AK, Scheraga JS, and Woodward A (eds) (2003) Climate Change and Health: Risks and Responses. Geneva: WHO.
www.who.int/globalchange/climate
Tóth F. (ed) (1999) Fair Weather: Equity Concerns in Climate Change. London: EarthScan.
Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research: http://www.tyndall.ac.uk/
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: http://unfccc.int/