Assuming, for the sake of simplicity, that qualitative research is confined to exploratory, critical, and descriptive inquiries (or designs), there is still one question looming. Which strategy (or method or tradition) of qualitative research does one use if one wants to explore a specific topic? Can they be triangulated? Morse (1994a, p. 233) lists several major types of qualitative research strategies, describing for each strategy typical research questions, underlying paradigms, methods of data collection, and data sources. Based on Morse (1994a), we discuss the essential attributes of four qualitative research strategies (Table 10.4). We limit our discussion to some main types of qualitative research that, in our view, are most relevant for public administrators in general.
As Morse (1994a, p. 233) advises, it is often useful to imagine what one wants tofind out‘‘by projecting the research outcome, the researcher may begin to conceptualize the question, the sample size, the feasibility of the study, the data sources, and so on.’’Following her example, we sketch what the four research strategies would yield in a mock project entitled ‘‘Managing a nonprofit organization’’(Table 10.5). It has to be noted that for the purposes of methodological triangulation, more than one qualitative method can be used in a research project. It is also important to remember that the four methods identified here are not all-agreed-upon procedures that are‘‘carved in stone.’’
Each of them is rather a family of similar methods than a concise methodology.
10.6.1 PHENOMENOLOGY
Phenomenology attempts to reveal the essential meaning of human actions. Introduced into the social sciences by Schutz (1967), elaborated upon by Husserl (1970), and further developed by Heidegger (1972), phenomenology has been applied successfully to the study of bureaucracy and public administration (Hummel, 1994a,b). At least two schools of phenomenology can be identified:
(1) eidetic (descriptive) phenomenology, based on Husserl’s‘‘transcendental subjectivity’’and (2) hermeneutic (interpretive) phenomenology, based on Heideggerian ontology (Ray, 1994). Others sometimes distinguish phenomenography as a different branch of phenomenology (Marton, 1994).
Very often, phenomenology is included in larger groupings of hermeneutic-interpretive research methods (Diesing, 1991). The very brief description below lists some common features of their methodology.
In phenomenology, comprehension is achieved first of all by reflecting upon one’s own experiences. Then in-depth interviews and conversations are carried out with subjects aiming to bring forth experiential descriptions of phenomena. These conversations are tape-recorded, transcribed, and thoroughly examined. Descriptive words and phrases are highlighted and studied.
Data from other relevant sources can also be used. The principal means for combining data is the process of conducting thematic analyses by identifying common structures of the particular experi- ence. Van Maanen (1990) proposes four‘‘existential’’guidelines for phenomenological reflection:
lived space, lived body, lived time, and lived human relations. The result of phenomenological research is an abstract reflective statement purified through several iterations of writing. Ray (1994) TABLE 10.3
Types of Research Questions
Types Purpose of the Study Research Question
Exploratory To investigate little-understood phenomena To identify=discover important variables To generate hypotheses for future research
What is happening here? What are the salient themes, patterns, and categories in participant’s meaning structures?
How are these patterns linked with one another?
Explanatory To explain the forces causing the phenomenon in question
What events, beliefs, attitudes, and policies are shaping this phenomenon?
To identify plausible causal networks shaping the phenomenon
How do these forces interact to result in the phenomenon?
Critical To uncover implicit assumptions and biases (and structures) on which the predominant argument (narrative) rests
What are the assumptions about human nature, society, reality, and type of knowledge that define the existing views on the phenomenon?
Are they right? Are they fair?
Descriptive To document the phenomenon of interest What are the salient behaviors, events, beliefs, attitudes, structures, and processes occurring in this phenomenon?
Action-oriented To change the phenomenon by educating and mobilizing people involved in it and affected by it
What events, beliefs, attitudes, and policies are shaping this phenomenon? How the target group (people needing help) see the phenomenon? How can they change it?
Predictive To predict the outcomes of the phenomenon What will occur as a result of this phenomenon?
To forecast the events and behaviors resulting from phenomenon
Who will be affected?
In what ways?
Source: Adapted and amended from Marshall, C. and Rossman, G., inDesigning Qualitative Research, Sage, Thousand Oaks, California, 1995, 41. With permission.
TABLE10.4 ComparisonofFourMajorTypesofQualitativeResearchStrategies Strategy Disciplinary Tra
ditionsTypeofQuestionPrimaryMethodOtherDataSourcesReferences PhenomenologyPhilosophyQuestionsaboutmeaning:whatisthe meaningofaperson’sexperience? Howdogroupmemberscopewith variousphenomena?
Audiotaped‘‘conversations’’; writtenanecdotesof personalexperiences; in-depthinterviews Phenomenologicalliterature; philosophicalreflections;art; poetry
VanMaanen(1990); Hummel(1994a) EthnographyAnthropologyQuestionsaboutculture:whatare valuesandbeliefsofthisgroup? Whatisacceptedbehavior?Whatis notacceptable?
Participantobservation; unstructuredinterviews; fieldnotes Documents,records;pictures; socialnetworkdiagrams; maps;genealogies
Atkinson(1992);Jorgensen (1989) GroundedtheorySociology SocialpsychologyQuestionsaboutprocess:whattheory isembeddedintherelationships betweenvariables?Isthereatheory ofchange?
Interviews(tape-recorded); participantobservation; coding
Memos;diaryGlaserandStrauss(1967); StraussandCorbin(1990) ActionresearchSocialpsychology EducationQuestionsaboutcritique:whatare participants’perceptionsand implicitmodelsofthoughtand action?Howcanweemancipate groupmembers?Whatinhibits change?
Interviews(audio-andvideo- recorded);conversationsObservationArgyrisetal.(1985);Torbert (1991) Source:AdaptedandamendedfromMorse,J.M.,inHandbookofQualitativeResearch,Sage,ThousandOaks,California,224.Withpermission.
TABLE10.5 ComparisonofFourMajorTypesofQualitativeResearchStrategiesfortheHypotheticalProject‘‘ManagingaNonprofitOrganization’’ StrategyTypeofQuestionParticipants=Informants=SourcesSampleSizeData-Collection MethodsTypeofResults PhenomenologyWhatisthemeaningof managinganonprofit organization?
Managersofnonprofitorganization; autobiographiesandbiographiesAbout5–6participantsor untilsaturationIn-depthconversationsReflectivedescriptionofthe experienceof‘‘whatitfeels liketomanage’’ EthnographyWhataretheactivitiesthe managerengagesin?How doesheorsherelateto others?
Managers,assistants,secretaries, othersubordinates,clients,funders, variousdocuments About30–50interviewsor untilsaturation
Participantobservation; unstructuredinterviews; ‘‘shadowing’’; examinationof calendars,organization charts,etc.
Descriptionofmanager’s dailyactivities,routines, relationshipswith subordinatesandclients GroundedtheoryWhatistheessenceofspecific actions(e.g.,istheobserved actofwritingplanning, informationprocessing,or communicating?)Inwhat contextdiditoccur?
Managers,secretaries;assistants; clients;diaries,calendars; organizationcharts;plans; phonebills About30–50interviewsor untilsaturationInterviews(tape- recorded);participant observation;coding (openandaxial);writing andanalyzingmemos; drawingschemata
Descriptionof sociopsychologicalaspects ofmanaging—what action=interactionismore likelyunderdifferentstimuli andindifferentsituations ActionresearchWhataretheperceptionsof themanagerandhis=her subordinatesabouthis=her work?Howdifferentare theyfromhis=heractivities? Howthepracticecanbe changedtomakeitmore efficientandjust?
Themanagerandhisorher subordinatesinoneorganization; clients About15–25interviewsor untilsaturation Interviews(audio-and video-recorded); conversations; observation Arrivingtoenlightenment (reflection)formanagesso theycandetecttheir shortcomingsandtakea correctiveaction
argues that ‘‘affirmation and credibility of phenomenological research can be best understood by Heidegger’s (1972) concept of truth as unconcealment and Ricooeur’s idea that truth of the text may be regarded as the world it unfolds’’(p. 130).
10.6.2 ETHNOGRAPHY
Historically originating from cultural anthropology, ethnographic approaches to social research have been applied in numerousfields such as social and cultural anthropology, sociology, human geog- raphy, organization studies, educational research, and cultural studies (Atkinson and Hammersly, 1994). Ethnography and participant observation can be understood as the description of one group’s culture from that group’s perspective. As with phenomenology, ethnography is not an agreed-upon precise body of methodology. Boyle (1994) discusses four types of ethnographies (classical or holistic; particularistic; cross-sectional; ethnohistorical). Muecke (1994) discusses classical, system- atic, interpretive, and critical directions in ethnography. Some authors consider ethnomethodology (Garfinkel, 1967) as a part of this tradition whereas others see ethnomethodology more as a hermeneutic practice (Holstein and Gubrium, 1994). Nevertheless, there is more agreement on the term participant observation, which is essentially the method or technique of ethnography. Although participant observation and ethnography are not exactly the same, they are often used synonymously.
Jorgensen (1989) fairly accurately summarizes the essence of participant observation:‘‘[Parti- cipant observation] focuses on human interaction and meaning viewed from the insider’s viewpoint in everyday life situations and settings. It aims to generate practical and theoretical truths formulated as interpretive theories . . . involves a flexible, open-ended, opportunistic process and logic of inquiry through which what is studied constantly is subject to redefinition based onfield experience and observation’’(p. 23). In addition, participant observation‘‘concentrates on in-depth description and analysis of some phenomena. Participation is a strategy for gaining access to otherwise inaccessible dimensions of human life and experience’’(Jorgensen, 1989, p. 23).
10.6.3 GROUNDEDTHEORY
Firstly articulated by Glasser and Strauss (1967), the grounded theory approach shares many features with other types of qualitative researches regarding sources of data, data gathering, analyzing techniques, and possible uses of quantitative techniques. However, it has a uniquely explicit emphasis on theory generation. Evolving theory (i.e., propositions about the nature of relationships between phenomena that are examined) is iteratively validated against the data (i.e., being grounded in the data) until a substantive theory emerges that relates the concepts and their properties and dimensions in a systematic manner. Grounded theory is not an all-agreed-upon research strategy, although disagreements in this approach are of much lesser magnitude than in other approaches. The research question in a grounded theory study is a statement that identifies the phenomenon to be studied. The researcher should rely on his or her ability to recognize what is important in the data and to give it meaning. Readers interested in more details may read the chapter on grounded theory in this handbook (Chapter 40), or for a more detailed guidance, consult Strauss and Corbin (1990).
10.6.4 ACTIONRESEARCH
Action research is a research strategy that studies action with three goals: making that action more effective and efficient; empowerment and participation; and developing scientific knowledge.
Action research is again a family of methods rather than a precise research methodology, and is often covered under the title of participative research. Chein, Cook, and Harding (1948) identify four varieties of action research: diagnostic, participant, empirical, and experimental. Reason (1994) identifies three main approaches to participative inquiry: cooperative inquiry, participatory action research, and action science and action inquiry. Deshler and Ewert (1995) identify five fields of practice that have contributed to this participatory action research: action research in organizations,
participatory action research in community development, action research in schools, farmer partici- patory research and technology generation, and participatory evaluation.
As one can conclude from the above, action research is a different research strategy in different environments. Students of public administration are more familiar with the following three varieties of action research: action research as a form of organizational development (e.g., Argyris, Putham, and Smith, 1985), as participatory evaluation (e.g., Guba and Lincoln, 1989), and as participatory action research in community development (e.g., Whyte, 1991). For example, as to action research and organizational development, French and Bell (1995) write that‘‘action research is essentially a mixture of three ingredients: the highly participative nature of OD [Organizational Development], the consultant role of collaborator and co-learner, and the iterative process of diagnosis and action’’
(p. 7). Six types of activities are usually involved in this type of research, including (1) a preliminary diagnosis, (2) data gathering from client group, (3) data feedback to the client group, (4) exploration of the data by the client group, (5) action planning by the client group, and (6) action taken by the client group with an OD practitioner acting as facilitator throughout the process. Consequently,
‘‘widespread participation by client group members ensures better information, better decision making, and action taking, and increased commitment to action programs. . . . Action research yields both change and new knowledge. . . . The client group learns what works and what doesn’t work’’(French and Bell, 1995, p. 7).