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particular, we focused on the social appraisal account of interpersonal emotional infl u- ence and proposed some ways in which this account can be integrated with emotional contagion theory. We believe that it is possible and fruitful to integrate these accounts into a single theoretical framework that would be better able to explain the occurrence of collective emotions than either account on its own. At the same time, we recognize that the complexities of human social interaction are such that the emergence of collective emotions involves more processes than we have been able to address here. For example, it is clear that emotional expressions should not always be taken at face value, in the sense that they can be deceptive (Andrade & Ho, 2009), and that they are not always seen for what they are, because perceivers can project their own emotional states onto the sender (Niedenthal et al., 2000; Schmid & Mast, 2010). Th e turbulence example illustrates this latter point: A probe into the fl ight attendant’s behavior during the turbulence resulted in “no evidence” that she “screamed and panicked” when the plane hit the turbulence (BBC News, 2006b). In some cases, then, collective emotion may literally emerge out of “thin air.”
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Emotions and the social niche
Joel Krueger
University of Exeter
Recent infl uential theories of emotion in philosophy and cognitive science (e.g., appraisal theories, neo-Jamesian theories, etc.) tend to share a common assumption: emotions con- sist of inner states or processes confi ned to the biological borders of the agent. Whatever their ontology (e.g., evaluative judgments, physiological states of bodily arousal, etc.), emotions are private states individuated by their neurobiology, cognitive content, behav- ioral expression or phenomenal character (e.g., Damasio, 1999; Laird, 2007; Nussbaum, 2001; Prinz, 2004; Russell, 2009; Schwarz & Clore, 1988). 1
While helpful in characterizing some aspects of emotions, these individualistic approaches nevertheless oft en fail to account for the extent to which emotions are medi- ated by the agent’s social niche —that is, the extent to which emotions emerge from within, and area at times partially constituted by, the dynamics of an agent’s ongoing interaction with evolving social contexts. Th is chapter considers emotions not as private entities but rather as social phenomena. I argue that emotions might be productively thought of as distributed processes of social niche construction: forms of engagement whereby agents manipulate their social context to establish, modify, and negotiate relationships, com- municate intentions, and attune themselves to the mental life of others. I primarily focus on emotions as they emerge from within the dynamics of face-to-face engagement and consider how material and ideational factors of our social niches support the emergence of emotions on both short-term and long-term time scales. In doing so, I draw upon theo- retical resources of distributed approaches to cognition as well as several diff erent strands of empirical work, including research in developmental psychology.