A problem concerning the analysis of Kageyama (1982) is whether or not hypothe- sizing a word-internal empty category is theoretically permissible or not. Hypothe- sizing deletion instead of an empty category gives the same results, but runs into a similar problem of whether or not word-internal deletion is theoretically appro- priate. We can conclude, then, that the word formation mechanism observed in (17a) is still unresolved theoretically. In contrast, since the right-hand elements of the examples of (17b) all exist as two-character coordinate compounds, they can be given a simple analysis like (19) without any need to posit empty categories or deletion.
(19) yu-[syutu-nyuu](transport-[out-in]),koku-[nai-gai](country-[in-out]), so-[hu-bo](grand-[father-mother]),gi-[hu-bo](in.law-[father-mother])
The group of examples in (20e) stand out as being composed of two morphemes, neither of which is free.
Nomura (1974) further divides sub-bases into seven types. Here, we will divide the one-character S-J words corresponding to Nomura’s sub-basesfirst into free and bound morphemes and then by part of speech for a total of nine types. The forms in (21) are all free morphemes that can either be used independently or with a native morpheme affixed.
(21) a. Noun: (宿泊)客 (syukuhaku)kyaku‘(lodging) guest’
b. Verb: (国内)産 (kokunai)san‘(domestic) production’Cf.産するsan-suru
‘produce-do’
c. AN: (問題)別 (mondai)betu[(problem) separated]‘divided by problem’ Cf.別なbetu-na‘another’
d. Adverb:急(発進)kyuu(hassin)‘sudden (departure)’Cf.急に kyuu-ni
‘suddenly’
The forms given in (22) are all bound morphemes (that is, affixes) and are categorized by their function and use.
(22) a. Noun-forming suffixes: (国際)性 (kokusai)sei‘(internation)ality’, (慰霊)祭 (irei)sai[(comfort spirits)service]‘memorial service’, (入学)金 (nyuugaku)kin[(enter school)money]‘matriculation fee’
b. AN-forming suffix: (根本)的 (konpon)teki[(foundation)AN-forming suffix]
‘fundamental’
c. VN-forming suffixes: (絶望)視 (zetuboo)si[(lose hope)regard.as]‘consider hopeless’, (近代)化 (kindai)ka[(modern times)change]‘modernize’ d. Prefixes with an adjectival meaning:低(姿勢)tei(sisei)‘low (posture)’,
新(兵器)sin(heiki)‘new (weapons)’
e. Prefixes with a determiner-like meaning:各(方面)kaku(hoomen)
‘every (direction)’,同(少佐)doo(syoosa) [same (lieutenant.commander)]
‘the same lieutenant commander (mentioned before)’
Care should be taken when classifying to clearly differentiate between those forms that are strictly limited in their distribution to appearing in three-character S-J words and those that are not so limited and can appear in S-J words of any length. Also, it is essential to determine whether the form is limited to appear in S-J words or whether it may also appear with native or foreign words. Table 6 shows that the affixes in (22) can indeed appear with bases other than two-character Sino-Japanese words.
Table 6:Versatility of Sino-Japanese affixes
affix one-character base multi-character base foreign base -性
-sei
(noun-forming suffix) 酸性 san sei
‘acidicity’
多民族性 taminzoku sei
‘multi-ethnicity’
アルカリ性 arukari sei
‘alkalinity’ -的
-teki
(AN-forming suffix)
美的 bi teki
‘aesthetic’
共産主義的 kyoosansyugi teki
‘communistic’
ヨーロッパ的 yooroppa teki
‘European’ -視
-si
‘view as’
敵視 teki si
‘view as the enemy’
最重要視 saizyuuyoo si
‘view as most important’
アイドル視 aidoru si
‘view as pop idol’
-化 -ka (‘-ize’)
液化 eki ka
‘liquefaction’
軍国主義化 gunkokusyugi ka
‘shift to militarism’
グローバル化 guroobaru ka
‘globalization’ 新-
sin-
‘new’
新型 sin gata
‘new pattern’
新千歳空港 Sin titosekuukoo
‘New Chitose Airport’
新テレビドラマ sin terebidorama
‘new TV drama’ 各-
kaku-
‘each, every’
各局 kaku kyoku
‘every broadcasting station’
各国立大学 kaku kokuritudaigaku
‘each national university’
各フライト kaku huraito
‘everyflight’
As demonstrated in Table 6, the affixes in (22) are not limited to appearing in three- character S-J words. One-character Sino-Japanese affixes will be revisited in more detail in Section 6.
The same observation applies to the two-character Sino-Japanese“main bases” given in (20a, b, c, and d). The bases with which these co-occur are not limited to two-character S-J words. Uniquely, the two-character S-J words given in (20e) as bound morphemes only become free-standing words when followed by a one- character suffix or accompanied by a two-character S-J word. 国際 kokusai and 本格 honkaku co-occur with other types of morphemes comparatively freely, as in 国際シンポジウム kokusai-sinpoziumu ‘international symposium’ (combination with a foreign word) and本格木造住宅 honkaku-mokuzoo-zyuutaku‘genuine wood housing (combination with a four-character S-J word).
5 Characteristics of four-character Sino-Japanese words
Four-character S-J words are words composed of four S-J morphemes, which are typically divided into two words, each consisting of two morphemes. The four
Sino-Japanese words 113
examples shown in (24), 経験豊富 keiken-hoohu ‘richly experienced’, 財務大臣 zaimu-daizin‘Finance Minister’, 総裁選挙 soosai-senkyo‘party chief election’, and 出馬表明 syutuba-hyoomei‘announcement of candidacy’are of this type.
(24) a. Keiken-hoohu(経験豊富) na zaimu-daizin(財務大臣) ga richly-experienced ADN Finance-Minister NOM soosai-senkyo(総裁選挙) ni syutuba-hyoomei(出馬表明) si-ta.
party.chief-election DAT candidacy-announcement do-PST
‘The highly experienced Finance Minister announced his candidacy for the election for party chief.’
経験豊富 keikenhoohu‘richly experienced’is an AN,財務大臣 zaimudaizin‘Finance Minister’and総裁選挙 soosaisenkyo‘party chief election’are nouns, and出馬表明 syutubahyoomei‘announcement of candidacy’ is a VN. Each is a phonological unit pronounced with a single accent on the whole. There are also four-character S-J adverbs such as 誠心誠意 seisin-seii ‘with total sincerity’ and 生懸命 issyoo- kenmei ‘with utmost effort’. This section will explain the structural patterns and productivity of four-character S-J words and will examine their syntactic uses.