human activity source additional step in
causal pathway
interacting stressor proximate
stressor
response modifying factor LEGEND
aquaculture
& hatcheries
↓ ammonia volatilization
industry
water withdrawals
agriculture
↓ riparian &
watershed vegetation
urbanization
↓ nitrogen uptake
∆ pH
↑ ionized ammonia
(NH4+) ↑ unionized ammonia
(NH3)
↑ ammonia in water ↑ ammonia in sediment
↑ ammonia fluctuation
nitrogen cycle
↑ mortality ↓ reproductive success
∆
ecosystem processes∆
population &community structure
∆
behavior ↑ susceptibility to other stressors↓ growth
↓ condition
↑ ammonia inputs
leakage, leachate &
groundwater transport atmospheric emissions,
transport & deposition direct effluent
discharges stormwater runoff
channel alteration
