Handbook of Anthropometry

There are a variety of theoretical and practical definitions of anthropometry, but in its simplest form, anthropometry is the physical measurement of the human body and its parts. King's College London is one of the leading universities, currently consistently ranked in the top 25 in the world.

Tools and Techniques in Anthropometry

Tools and Techniques in Anthropometry: Muscle 18 Anthropometry of Human Muscle Using Segmentation

Tools and Techniques in Anthropometry

Regions and Anatomical Areas of the Body: Head and Face

Regions and Anatomical Areas of the Body

Anthropometry of Pregnancy

Anthropometry of Infants and Children

Anthropometry of Puberty and Adolescence in Health and Disease

Anthropometry of Middle-Aged and Aged in Health and Disease

Anthropometry in Genetic Disease and Polymorphisms

Anthropometry in Cancer

Anthropometry in Exercise and Sport Activities 107 The Meaning of Muscle Mass for Health, Disease,

Anthropometry in Diabetes

Anthropometry in Cardiovascular Disease 130 Altered Bone Geometry of the Radius

Anthropometry in Organ Disease

Anthropometry in Special Conditions and Circumstances 140 Psychosocial Correlates in the Context of

Part XXIII Anthropometry in ethnic groups and cultural and geographical diversity 156 Anthropometry in ethnic groups and cultural.

Anthropometry and Nutrition: General Aspects 169 Anthropometric Measurements and Nutritional Status

Anthropometry and Nutrition

Biomechanical and Ergonomic Aspects 182 Anthropometry in Bipedal Locomotion

Contributors

Mehrdad Jahanshahi Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran. Kammerer Department of Human Genetics, College of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.

Part I

Tools and Techniques in Anthropometry

Chapter 1

Introduction
Basic Statistical Concepts .1 Random Variable

Population Versus Sample Statistics
Summarizing Data
Probability Distributions

Principles of Statistical Estimation

Point Estimation
Interval Estimation

Precision-Based Sample Size Estimation

Dichotomous Variables
Continuous Variables

Principles of Hypothesis Testing
Power-Based Sample Size Estimation

Dichotomous Variables
Continuous Variables

Other Parameters, Other Settings
Application to Other Areas of Health and Disease

For any given parameter, the length of the confidence interval is a function of the sample size. Several other factors can influence the sample size (Cole 2006), such as the magnitude of the covariate of interest.

Chapter 2

Introduction
The Use of Z -Scores
The Use of Percentiles
Selection of Anthropometric Measure Cut Points
Statistical Methods/Techniques Used for Curve-Fitting or Smoothing
Practical Methods and Techniques: How to Use Growth References/Standards
The WHO Growth References and Standards

The 1978 WHO/NCHS Growth References
The 1995 WHO Growth References
The 2006 WHO Growth Standards for Preschool Children
The 2007 WHO Growth Reference for School-Age Children and Adolescent

The 2000 International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) Reference for Classiﬁ cation of Childhood Obesity
The US 2000 CDC Growth Charts
Comparisons of Using Different International and Local Growth References/Standards
Applications to Other Areas of Health and Diseases

A percentage is the value of a variable below which a certain percentage of observations (or population) falls, i.e., the percentage refers to the position of an individual in a certain reference distribution. Given the LMS equation for the specific indicator and the estimated parameters λ (L, power in the Box-Cox transformation to "correct" bias), μ (M, mean) and σ (S, a coefficient of variation) for each age of month, the child's anthropometric measurements can be converted to Z-scores and percentages (see below). WHO recommended cut-offs for overweight and obesity based on Z-scores for age.

Examples are used to show how to improve segmental measurements by taking multiple measurements along the limbs, thereby "slicing" the limbs into different cross-sections, such as during MRI imaging.

Chapter 3

Abstract The present chapter clarifies some of the basic concepts of bioimpedance and discusses its importance in relation to biophysical models and their limitations. Briefly, the present chapter begins with an explanation of the raw data obtained from bioimpedance measurements. This goes on to explain the frequency-dependent nature of the electrical properties of biological tissues and to clarify the differences between single-frequency, multi-frequency BIA and BIS.

This is followed by a detailed overview of the fundamental biophysical model underlying most bioimpedance body composition applications.

Use of Bioelectrical Impedance: General Principles and Overview

Introduction

Currently, the term bioimpedance measurement refers to all methods based on the characterization of the passive electrical properties of biological tissue. In general, these methods can be classified according to the following four groups: transimpedance, transmission line, microwave, inductive and finally a combination of the previous. The latter have been associated with the term tomography as they focus on characterizing the spatial distribution of passive electrical properties.

Because of the different passive electrical properties of biological tissues and their frequency-dependent response to an alternating current, the impedance magnitude and phase can provide diagnostic information about physiological properties and events in the body or body segment under consideration.

Impedance, Phase Angle, Resistance, and Reactance

Ohm’s Law
Resistance
Reactance
Impedance and Phase

Impedance (Z) Electrical impedance is a measure of the total resistance of a conductor to alternating current. The magnitude of the impedance is a scalar quantity as it only relates to the distance of the impedance vector. Assuming a uniform current density, resistance (R) can be defined by the physical geometry and resistivity of the conductor.

The magnitude can be calculated as the sum of the resistance vectors (R) and reactance (X).

Electrical Equivalent Circuits of Biological Tissue

Fricke and Morse Model
Bode Plot Versus Cole Plot

An example of the resulting Bode diagrams for such an equivalent circuit is given in Fig. For convenience, it is generally accepted that the diagram is plotted in the first quadrant of the complex plane. When experimental data for living tissue are plotted in a complex impedance plane, it can be observed that the center of the semicircle is located below the actual axis.

Geometrically, the effect of the parameter a is that the locus appears as an arc with its center below the real axis.

Safety
The Four-Terminal Technique

Electrical Properties of the Skin
Needle Electrodes Versus Surface Electrodes
The Human Body: An Isotropic Conductor ?

The Basic Biophysical Model

Descriptive Versus Explanatory Models

Whole-Body Versus Segmental Measurements

Distal Electrode Arrangement
Proximal Electrode Arrangement
Segmental Electrode Arrangement

3.2 , the term l / R to is directly related to the sum of the quotients of each discrete diameter and its resistivity. Basically, resistance of the three sections can be assumed to be constant or different. R trunk then only requires the determination of the tension between the left wrist and left foot.

The greatest uncertainty underlying the segmental approach can be traced back to the volume estimate of the stem.

Potential Errors in Bioimpedance Measurements

Resistance Versus Impedance
Conductor Length
Spatial Geometry and Postural Changes
Ion Concentration
Tissue Temperature
Sigman Effect and Hematocrit
Ventilation
Daily Activities, Nutrition and Menstrual Cycle

Finally, the total limb volume can be calculated as the integral over x of the estimated cross-sectional area. It should be noted that some bioimpedance monitors cannot distinguish between the real and imaginary parts. A final aspect to consider in body positioning is the placement of the limbs in relation to the trunk.

Nevertheless, in women who experience large weight gains (2-4 kg) during the menstrual cycle, careful interpretation of bioimpedance data is necessary as a significant amount of the increase in body mass is related to total body water (Bunt et al. 1989.

Reliability

The influence of a breakfast meal on the assessment of body composition using bioelectrical impedance. The reliability of bioelectrical impedance measurements in the assessment of body composition in healthy adults. Bioelectrical impedance: effect of 3 identical meals on daily impedance variation and calculation of body composition.

Multi-frequency bioelectrical impedance analysis: a cross-validation study of the inductor circuit and Cole models.

Chapter 4

Abstract Thermal radiation exchange of the human body with surrounding surfaces plays a significant role in describing the thermal conditions of people in a given environment. This set of data mainly includes the body surface area, clothing area factor, effective radiation area factor and projected area factors. A detailed description of the most common of these will be illustrated in this study, pointing out their main features and their ease of use or otherwise.

A detailed analysis was then carried out in relation to the determination of the values of the clothing area factor, the effective radiation area factor and the projected area factors of a sample of standing and seated persons, with reference to a field experiment carried out with the help of a purpose-built experimental device. , and described male and female subjects of the population of southern Italy.

An Anthropometric Analysis of Seated and Standing People

Introduction

Heat exchanges through the external surface of the human body occur because the thermohygrometric conditions of the skin generally differ from those of the surrounding environment. This causes thermal exchanges between the subject and the environment, which are called dry heat loss (that is, by convection, C , radiation, R and conduction, K ) and latent heat loss (due to vapor diffusion through the skin, E d , and evaporation of the sweat, E sw Latent heat loss due to vapor diffusion through the skin is caused by migration of the vapor through the surface layer of the skin, it depends on the skin temperature, t sk , and the evaporative thermal insulation of clothing.

Latent heat loss due to evaporation of the sweat, E sw , is assumed as an independent parameter.

Dry Heat Exchanges Between a Conﬁ ned Environment and the Human Body

Convective Exchanges
Radiative Exchanges

They point out that, of the main contributions to the thermal balance of the human body, radiation heat exchange represents one of the main factors that deserves further research. However, the projected body area, A p, is the surface of the human body profile projected in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the radiant source. Thus, the average radiation temperature can be calculated as a function of the temperatures of the N surrounding surfaces of the enclosure, t i, and the view factors (or angle factors ) between the object and the same surfaces, F p → i.

They can be estimated using diagrams where they are reported as a function of the relative position of people to the surrounding surfaces (Fanger 1970; ISO 1998.

Methodologies for the Determination of Various Relevant Anthropometric Parameters

Determining the Body Surface Area of a Naked Person
Determining the Clothing Area Factor
Determining the Effective Radiating Area Factor
Practical Methods and Techniques for the Projected Area Factors

Experimental Methods
Numerical Simulation Methods

The calculation of the effective radiating area of the human body (clothed or naked) was originally provided by Underwood and Ward (1966. The projected area factor in a given direction is defined as the ratio of the area of a human body projected on a plane perpendicular to the direction , Ap, and the body's effective radiating area, A r. From the values of the projected areas, obtained with experimental methods, it is possible to derive the projected area factor.

The average values of the projected area factors, f p , for standing and sitting people were evaluated; they are shown in Fig.

Anthropometric Parameters in the Literature

Comparison with Fanger’s Data of Projected Area Factors
Influence of Gender and Nationality on Projected Area Factors
Comparison of Available Effective Radiating Area Values

A comparative summary of the effective radiating surface and the effective radiating surface factor for standing and sitting positions is given in Tables 4.6–4.8. This table reports the effective radiation surface area and the effective radiation surface area factor for standing and sitting positions as available in the current literature. This table shows the effective radiating surface and the effective radiating surface factor for standing and sitting positions for male subjects as a function of posture and nationality obtained by Lo Curcio (2009.

This table reports the effective radiant area and the effective radiant area factor for standing and sitting postures for female subjects as a function of posture and nationality, obtained by Lo Curcio (2009.

Applications to Other Areas of Health and Disease

The relative absorption of the skin depends on the color temperature of the emitting source. Finally, the behavior of the radiation heat flux leaving the body of the irradiated individual is reported in Fig. These considerations clearly confirm the crucial importance of knowledge of the radiation parameters of the human body (especially the projected and the effective radiation area factor). ) to evaluate radiant heat fluxes and the thermal sensation of a subject.

The thermal sensation of a subject in a limited environment is related to the need of man.

Chapter 5

Electromagnetic field-based systems are contact scanners that require the entire surface of the limb segment to be traced using a stylus. Furthermore, the use of systems for the routine collection of anthropometry for all patients has been proposed, even in cases where the instrumentation is not used as part of the process of manufacturing a prosthesis or an orthosis. Additional utility is possible with the use of the digital measurement marker function on magnetic field scanners.

An additional practical application of the systems is the centralized manufacture of prosthetic and orthotic components.

Optical and Electromagnetic Shape-Capturing Systems for Limb Anthropometrics

Introduction
Limb Anthropometrics
Technologies for Digital Shape Capture

Magnetic Field-Based Digitization
Optical Digitization

Anthropometric Outcomes
Accuracy of Digital Shape Capture
Applications to Other Areas of Health and Disease
Practical Methods and Techniques
Chapter 6

Specific anthropometric measurements are important in prosthetics and orthotics because of the clinical needs of individual patients. With these approaches, accurate measurement of limb contours and shape are paramount. One of the advantages of digital shape capture of limb anthropometry is the portability of the digital files.

If the length is measured on the limb or on a positive model, a practitioner can adjust the sliding mat parallel to the long axis of the limb.

The Composite Index of Anthropometric Failure (CIAF): An Alternative Indicator for Malnutrition

Introduction
What Is the Composite Index of Anthropometric Failure (CIAF)?
Constructing the CIAF
Using the CIAF as a Disaggregated Measure
Indicators of Morbidity
Predicting Risk
Anthropometric Failure and Poverty
Sources of Anthropometric Data
Conclusions
Chapter 7

This chapter discusses the development and use of an alternative indicator of malnutrition – the composite index of anthropometric failure (CIAF). Analysis of variance is used to look at the relationship between groups of anthropometric failure and poverty. The overall prevalence of malnutrition is then ascertained by adding all groups together, but excluding children in Group A (ie those not experiencing any form of anthropometric failure).

However, according to the CIAF, there were closer to 80 million children in one or more states of anthropometric failure.

The Human Body Shape Index (HBSI)

Abstract Body shape during age-related human growth is usually described using either body mass index (BMI) or weight index (PI). These indices describe human body shape (HBS) varying between body mass (M) and body height (H. A sex-invariant human body shape index (HBSI) has recently been introduced as a alternative to age.-specific BMI and PI models.

While the sensitivity and specificity of the HBSI in the classification of pathological changes in human body shape has not been investigated, the HBSI may be useful over other age-specific indices in the comparative analysis of HBS in children originating from different populations (location, diversity, and time period) over long periods of growth.

An Anthropometric Measure Based on an Age-Related Model of Human Growth

Introduction

The Shape of the Living Organisms and the Environment
The Human Body Shape

Quantitative Evaluation of Human Body Shape (HBS) .1 Standard Methods of Evaluation of HBS

Mathematical Modeling of Human Growth

Practical Methods and Techniques

The Mathematical Model of the Human Growth
Establishing an Age-Related Growth Model
Physical and Physiological Interpretation of Age-Related Growth Models
General Guidelines for the Establishment of Age-Independent Indices Based on Growth Models
Application of Normalization Algorithms in the Establishment of Age-Independent, Sex-Speciﬁ c, Human Body Shape Indices
The Physical and Physiological Interpretation of the HBSI
Application of HBSI for the Establishment of Standard Thresholds for Detection of Overweight and Obesity in Children

Application of the Growth Models to Other Areas
Chapter 8

Algorithms for creating a mathematical model of growth in children (5-18 years old) and applying the growth model to establish an age-independent body mass index (HBSI) will also be presented. The lack of uniform, absolute thresholds for classifying obesity in children must play a role in the spread of estimates. Future studies should compare the sensitivity and specificity of the HBSI versus other indices in the classification of obesity/malnutrition in children (Field et al. 2003.

The HBSI allows the comparison of changes in the shape of the human body during growth in individuals.

Reproducibility of DXA Measurements of Bone Mineral and Body Composition

Introduction