6 New Migration in the Asia-Pacific Region 141 7 Migrants and Minorities in the Labor Force 162 8 The Migration Process: Comparing Australia and. Meanwhile, international migration has become an important topic of public interest, and a number of excellent comparative works have been published on this topic. How can a labor exporting country protect its citizens abroad when labor importing countries hold most of the power in the global labor market.
In the early 1990s, western Europe was gripped by fears of uncontrolled mass migration from the east and south. One of the most important quantitative changes is the rapid growth of labor migration to the fast-growing economies of Asia.
Acknowledgements to the First Edition
List of Abbreviations
Party of the Democratic Revolution Patriotic Union of Kurdistan Republic of South Africa Special Category of Aid Societe Generale d'Immigration Special Humanitarian Program Social Democratic Party.
1 Introduction
An article in the radical Voice of New York spoke of 'the first multicultural riots' (Kwong, 1992), while another writer referred to 'the nation's first multiethnic riots' (Rutten, 1992). Many of the attacks were in the former German Democratic Republic, where the fall of the communist regime had left it high. The head of the International Organization for Migration (IOM) made an estimate of 120 million people in 1994, including all types of migrants, whether undocumented or not (Purcell, 1995).
The regulation of international migration is one of the two central issues arising from the mass population movements of the present era. International organizations and governments around the world argued against the forced return of the Rwandan refugees.
2 The Migratory Process and the Formation of Ethnic
Migration from the Dominican Republic to the USA was initiated by the US military occupation of the 1960s. In the period after 1945, this pattern of the migratory process applies more clearly to the movement from the Mediterranean basin to. The long-term effects of immigration on society appear in the fourth stage of the migratory process: permanent settlement.
Racism functions in different ways according to the specific history of a society and the interests of the dominant group. Access varied considerably in different countries depending on the prevailing concept of the nation.
3 International Migration before 1945
An important antecedent of modern labor migration is the system of slavery, which formed the basis of commodity production on New World plantations and mines from the late seventeenth to the mid-nineteenth century. In the second half of the nineteenth century, slaves were replaced by indentured laborers as the main source of labor on plantations. With the development of the sugar industry in the eighteenth century, Africans were enslaved.
The census of that year showed that there were 13.9 million foreign-born people in the United States, representing 13.2 percent of the total population (Briggs, 1984: 77). They were concentrated in industrial cities, especially in textile factories and construction. Many of the first generation managed to shift from wage labor to become small entrepreneurs in the cloth trade or retail sector.
Heavy industry in the Ruhr, which emerged in the mid-nineteenth century, drew agricultural workers away from the large estates of East Prussia. The peculiarity of the French case lies in the reasons for the shortage of labor during industrialization. Thus, labor immigration played a crucial role in the rise of modern industry and the formation of the working class in France.
During the Depression of the 1930s, hostility towards foreigners increased, leading to a policy of discrimination in favor of French workers. By the end of the war, there were 7.5 million foreign workers in the Reich, of whom 1.8 million were prisoners of war. Worker migrations to England, Germany and France in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries fit well into the model.
4 Migration to Highly Developed Countries
The Federal Labor Office (Bundesanstalt fiir Arbeit or BfA) set up recruitment offices in the Mediterranean countries. Large-scale migration to the United States developed later than in Western Europe due to the restrictive legislation passed in the 1920s. Australia embarked on a mass immigration program after 1945 because policymakers believed that the population of 7.5 million needed to be increased for both economic and strategic reasons.6 The policy, summed up in the popular slogan 'populate or perish', was one of permanent, family immigration.
One common feature in the migration movements of the 1945-73 period is the dominance of economic motivations. However, there are also similarities, especially in the economic and social situations of the two categories. Economic crisis and social change in the South are causing new pressure for migration to the North.
No less than a third of the foreign-born people in the US now live in California, where they make up 22 percent of the total population. In the global recession of the 1970s, immigration to Australia was sharply cut to average levels of only 56,000 per year. In the early 1990s, refugee intakes increased rapidly, mirroring events in Eastern Europe, Central America, and the Caribbean.
This is one of the factors contributing to the concentration of innovation and control in the 'global cities' that dominate the global economy. However, significant differences exist in the effectiveness of official policies (Cornelius, Martin, and Hollifield, 1994). In the early 1990s, Western Europe was gripped by the fear of an uncontrolled influx from the East and South.
5 The Next Waves
The Globalisation of International Migration
Second, the Cold War had cut off these states from the rest of the world. The situation in the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina suggests a possible future pattern for much of the vast area from Poland to the Pacific Ocean. Hundreds of thousands moved to the mainland, especially after the outbreak of the National Liberation War in 1954.
During the Gulf War, the Algerian government and the great masses of the population sided with the Iraqis. There was a higher share of South and East Asian workers in the migrant workforce of the Gulf oil states. By the mid-1970s, perhaps 40 percent of the domestic workforce was employed abroad, mostly in the United States.
Another important pattern of migrant labor involved Palestinian Arab residents of the territories occupied by Israel in the 1967 war. This concern threatened the leadership of the Palestinian Authority and the entire regional peace process. The average woman in Gaza had ten children, one of the highest fertility rates in the world.
Kurdish hopes for an independent state were dashed after the First World War. Falling incomes in Colombia and the allure of a stronger Venezuelan currency were important factors that made working in Venezuela attractive in the 1980s (Martinez. The overthrow of democratically elected President Aristide in September 1999 led to a renewed outflow of Haitian emigrants to the United States.
6 New Migrations in the Asia-Pacific Region
The nineteenth century saw considerable migration from China and Japan to the United States, Canada and Australia. Large-scale construction projects in the oil-rich countries of the Middle East have led to the massive recruitment of temporary contract workers from Asia. Most Asians came to the US under provisions of the Family Reunification Act of 1965, although movements of refugees or skilled workers were often the first link in the migration chain.
Asian immigration developed after the lifting of restrictions in the 1960s and 1970s, with additional impetus from the Indochinese refugee movement in the late 1970s. In 1985 there were 3.2 million Asian workers in the Gulf States, of which more than 2 million in Saudi Arabia. In the 1970s, most of the migrants were male workers who worked in the many construction projects on which petrodollars were spent.
In the 1980s, increasing numbers of women, mainly from the Philippines and Thailand, were allowed to work as dancers, waitresses and hostesses. The case strained relations between the two countries and led to a heated debate in the Philippines over the situation of the estimated 700,000 Filipinos who go to work overseas each year (Asian Migrant, January-March 1995). Burmese and Cambodians work on the farms of the northeast, many of which belong to migrants who are in the Middle East (Martin, 199la: 187).
Well over a million people were resettled in the United States, with smaller numbers in Australia, Canada, and Western European countries. Meanwhile, the UNHCR has organized a voluntary repatriation program, and the majority of the refugees have returned. Conflicts related to the breakup of the former Soviet Union led to mass displacements in the 1990s, affecting many new states, including Georgia, Chechnya, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Tajikistan.
7 Migrants and Minorities in the Labour Force
What is the situation of second and next generation immigrants in the labor market (is the disadvantage passed on from generation to generation?) One of the main themes emerging from the analysis of international labor migration in the 1980s was the interdependence with economic globalization. Castles and Kosack showed a general pattern of labor market segmentation between native and immigrant workers in Western Europe in the 1970s (Castles and Kosack, 1973).
In the 1980s, there was a growing awareness that the immigrant workforce was becoming increasingly bipolar, with a clustering at higher and lower levels of the labor market. The divide in immigrant labor market characteristics was also evident in the United States. Research in the 1980s further shed light on the role of immigrant women in the labor market.
In many highly developed countries, migrant workers have become heavily concentrated in the automotive and construction industries. The disproportionate effects of the 1970s recession on foreign workers in the auto and construction industries were indisputable. Foreign workers in the construction and auto industries peaked in 1974 and then declined sharply.
The ethnic solidarity produced by the process of labor market segmentation in many French car factories was a key factor in the prolonged unrest. Analysis of the employment of foreign workers in the French motor manufacturing and construction industries showed the disproportionate effects of job losses through economic restructuring since the 1970s on foreign workers. The segmentation of the labor market is a central element in the process leading to the formation of ethnic minorities.
