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2. International Convention relating to the Limitation of Liability of Owners of Sea-Going Ships, 1957, as amended by the Protocol of 1979(1957 Convention)
3. Convention on Limitation of Liability for Maritime Claims (LLMC), 1976, as amended by the Protocol of 1996:
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2. Convention relating to Civil Liability in the Field of Maritime Carriage of Nuclear Material, 1971(1971 Brussels Convention)
3. Convention on Third Party Liability in the Field of Nuclear Energy, 1960 4. Vienna Convention on Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage, 1963
5. International Convention on Liability and Compensation for Damage in connection with the Carriage of Hazardous and Noxious Substances by Sea, 1996, the Protocol of 2010 (HNS) 6. International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001 7. Nairobi International Convention on the Removal of Wrecks, 2007(Nairobi Convention) 8. Athens Convention relating to the Carriage of Passengers and their Luggage by Sea, 1974, as amended by the Protocol of 2002
9. International Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law Relating to Bills of Lading, 1924 and its Protocols of 1968 and 1979 (Hague-Visby Rules)
10. United Nations Convention on the Carriage of Goods by Sea, 1978 (Hamburg Rules) 11. United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea, 2008 (Rotterdam Rules)
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?4 Mandaraka-Sheppard, 2013: 752; Griggs, op. cit,: 18; :
Martínez, op. cit.:40 (