3.2 INQUIRY–BASED SCIENCE EDUCATION
3.2.8 The benefits of inquiry-based teaching and learning (IBTL) approaches… 87
87
‘about’ science by ‘doing’ science has been shown to be successful when there is a linking of science concepts to process skills instruction (Binns, Schnittka, Toti, & Bell, 2007). The implementation of this approach allows learners to learn about the nature of science and science knowledge and processes as they develop the skills necessary to do science. The teacher explicitly links science concepts to activity-based lessons incorporating science process skills such as, observing, measuring and classifying (Schwartz et al., 2004).
In order to benefit fully from inquiry activities, both epistemic demand and regulation of cognition appear to be crucial components in all stages of learners’ investigative efforts (Bell et al., 2003). Epistemic demand can direct the learner on the task and can improve the outcome of the inquiry learning activities. In order to facilitate the activity of epistemic demand, the learner may be guided in small steps to the execution of a certain inquiry stage.
For example, guidance in the hypothesis generating stage may provide the learner with an example of a statement for a hypothesis. These instructions provide learners with general and cognitive strategies that may be used to perform their learning tasks (Hong, McGee, &
Howard, 2001). However, epistemic demand alone may not be enough to change learners’
view of inquiry (Bell et al., 2003). They will need to use regulation of cognition to monitor the solution (Hong, McGee, & Howard, 2001; Kluwe & Freidricksen, 1985). In addition, the nature of guidance and support provided by the teacher is also an important factor. Dewey’s comment was apt when he argued that,
“We learn by doing and by thinking about what we are doing”
(Rowe, 1978 p. 216).
According to Hong et al., (2001) the regulation of cognition and not the knowledge of cognition is a predictor in open-ended tasks.
88 A recent study in South Africa on the benefits of autonomous science investigations in the Natural Sciences (Ramnarain, 2010) found that the majority of teachers and learners surveyed perceive the following benefits when learners are actively involved in doing investigations:
Their interest in the subject is stimulated.
Their conceptual understanding is improved.
They develop scientific skills.
(Ramnarain, 2010).
In addition, it develops independent learning through learner autonomy. In other words it promotes a highly self-directed, constructivist approach to teaching and learning science (de Jong & van Joolingen, 1998). They also encourage an understanding of unusual elements in the environment (Haury, 1993) by focusing on learning through experimenting and scientific reasoning (Kolloffel, Eysink, & de Jong, 2011) and participatory thinking (Dewey, 1964).
Furthermore, investigations in the science classroom involve complex cognitive processes that require learners to have an understanding of a range of science concepts and science processes or investigation procedures (Lubben & Millar, 1996). However, Quintana, Zhang, and Krajcik (2005), established that inquiry may be too complex for learners due to the range of metacognitive and cognitive activities. But with appropriate guidance and support it is possible to overcome such difficulties. Ramnarain (2011) for example, found that teachers’
use of appropriate questioning strategies during investigative practical work (IPW) enabled learners to understand more clearly the hypothesis they were to investigate. According to NSES (NRC, 2000) learners enjoy engaging in scientific inquiry when provided with the necessary guidance and support.
Moreover, they have the potential to participate enthusiastically in learning about the nature of science. Besides, meaningful and active engagement with science concepts and investigation procedures of science are necessary ingredients for learning and understanding science (NRC, 1996; 2000). Inquiry-based approaches to teaching and learning encourage learners to develop scientific habits of mind (Schwartz et al., 2004) that will enable them to be effective decision-makers beyond the classroom (NRC, 2000).
Other studies have illustrated that learners find practical work relatively useful, effective and enjoyable as compared with other science teaching and learning activities (Maeots & Pedaste,
89 2014). In a survey conducted by Cerini, Murray and Reiss (2003), of the 1400 learner- respondents, 71% chose ‘doing an experiment in class’ as one of the three methods of teaching and learning science they found ‘most enjoyable’. The study, however, does not elaborate on what constitutes ‘enjoyable’. It is therefore possible for activities to be enjoyable but with no or limited enhancement on the understanding of concepts. A smaller proportion (38%) selected it as one of the three methods of teaching and learning science they found
‘most useful and effective’ (Cerini, Murray, & Reiss, 2003).
A study by Newton, Driver and Osborne (1999) reported that learners’ interest in, and curiosity for science are high when they are young (6 years–12 years) and decrease, as they grow older (13 years–16 years). This is ascribed to the changes in science teaching and learning activities performed by secondary school learners. In the lower grades school science teaching and learning generally focuses on the processes of science rather than on the content (NRC, 1996) while in the secondary school science the focus is on established science knowledge or content (Chiappeta & Adams, 2000).
Studies also show that involvement in inquiry learning can lead to improved attainments in understanding science content as well as higher order thinking skills such as, critical thinking and problem solving (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). It also supports the development of more appropriate understandings of science and scientific inquiry, and that prospective teachers became more accepting of approaches to teaching science that encourage children’s questions about science phenomena (Haefner & Zambaul-Saul, 2004). Hence, in order to apply both the approaches at the primary school and at the secondary school there is a need to integrate the processes and products of science during science lessons. Science educators have suggested that when properly developed, inquiry-based activities have the potential to enhance learners’ meaningful learning by promoting constructivist learning, conceptual understanding, and their understanding of the nature of science (Wilke & Straits, 2005;
Hofstein & Lunetta, 2004; Hodson, 1990; Lazarowitz & Tamir, 1994; Lunetta, 1998).
Engaging in IBTL has the potential to develop higher-order thinking skills. Zohar and Dori (2003) include the following as examples of higher-order thinking in inquiry-oriented science education: formulating a research question, planning experiments, controlling variables, drawing inferences, making and justifying arguments, identifying hidden assumptions, and identifying reliable sources of information. These higher-order thinking skills are very much
90 in alignment with those that are developed during investigative practical work (IPW).
Hypothetical thinking requires higher-order cognitive skills and an awareness of the thinking process itself that is, meta-cognition (Zohar & Dori, 2003).
The movement toward increased emphasis on creative and critical thinking skills across the curriculum arises from acknowledgement that learners learn best when actively constructing their knowledge and understanding, rather than by absorbing it. In this regard, King (1994) contends that learners need to be taught how to engage effectively in the knowledge construction process. In other words, learners ought to be taught to think critically.
The South African curriculum in this regard, also emphasises the development of critical and creative thinking skills as is evident by one of its ‘critical outcomes’ as indicated in section 2.3.1 (a) in Chapter Two, namely, “Identify and solve problems and make decisions using critical and creative thinking”.
Critical thinking skills are examples of higher-order thinking skills. Critical thinking skills can be defined in several ways, but most often it includes the following: the ability to analyse arguments, make inferences, draw logical conclusions, and evaluate all relevant elements, as well as the possible consequences of each decision (King, 1994). Critical reasoning is important in the development of scientific literacy, which emphasises scientific understanding and the process of critically and creatively thinking about the natural world (Maienschein, 1998). Hence, engaging learners in scientific inquiry helps develop scientific literacy and affords them the opportunity to practice science process skills (Schwartz et al., 2004). The results of a study by Chapman (2001), emphasising concepts and reasoning skills showed that development of critical thinking skills could be integrated successfully with the study of the process of science and that this approach was consistent with content learning. Hence, learners ought to be given opportunities to engage with stimulating and wide-ranging experimental and investigative tasks.
The researcher’s previous study also showed the existence of a relationship between aims and objectives of biology education, scientific creative and critical thinking skills and general creative and critical thinking skills (Preethlall, 1996). These overlapping skills are predominantly those that are developed during IPW. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 3.4.
91 Figure 3.4: Relationship between nature of biology, aims and objectives of biology education, scientific creative & critical thinking skills and general creative and critical thinking skills
Hence, providing opportunities for learners to engage actively and autonomously, with limited appropriate guidance and support in IPW has the potential to achieve the development of higher-order thinking skills. Constructing knowledge and learning to think scientifically need not be adversarial processes. Various studies have shown that they can be synergistic (e.g. Edmondson & Novak, 1993; Zohar, Weinberger & Tamir, 1994).
In order for learners to obtain such benefits it is imperative for teachers to design their lessons in ways that would promote such achievements.
3.3 TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE AND TEACHERS’ BELIEFS
Teachers’ knowledge and beliefs are vital for classroom interactions in which learners are provided with opportunities to develop thorough knowledge and understandings of how scientists develop justifications for phenomena in the world (Crawford, 2007). Knowledge and beliefs about teaching and learning are intertwined, since what one believes about teaching inevitably depends to a large extent, on one’s knowledge as well as on one’s beliefs about how learning takes place (Crawford, 2007; Mansour, 2009). It is therefore logical to assume that what teachers know and what they believe has a bearing on their decisions in
Scientific creative
&
critical thinking
skills Aims &
objectives Biology of education
General creative
&
critical thinking
skills Nature of Biology
Scientific creative
&
critical thinking
skills
92 planning and preparation, before they enact or execute their decisions in the classroom (Crawford, 2007).