Epistemological beliefs are individuals’ simple opinions and understanding about the nature of knowledge and about suitable ways to create knowledge in order to expand or change one's own and others' knowledge (Hofer & Pintrich, 2002; Schommer, 1990). Hence, such beliefs impact on and shape individual characteristics, which influence learning and professional activities (Harteis, Gruber & Hertramph, 2010). It is plausible that teachers perceive and interpret their school environment including the curriculum by applying their individual beliefs. From a socio-constructivist view, it may be regarded as a process of making sense of the world (Billett, 2006; Rogoff, 2003).
Epistemological beliefs have recently received much attention in the fields of educational and psychological research (Harteis et al., 2010). While the approaches in psychology focuses on the development and constancy of epistemological beliefs, educational research focuses on how epistemological beliefs affect teaching activities (Harteis, Gruber, & Lehner, 2006) and learning processes (Bauer, Festner, Gruber, Harteis, & Heid, 2004). Within the education context, learning can therefore be considered to be a process of making sense of the world.
Various conceptualisations of individuals’ views of knowledge and knowing have been developed over the years (e.g., King & Kitchener, 1994; Perry, 1970). In Perry’s longitudinal study 84 male students in liberal arts were required to describe their university experiences.
Responses to open-ended interview questions were regarded at first to be the result of certain personality characteristics. However, each year, as the students were re-interviewed a regular pattern of change was emerging with respect to how the students viewed the world (Perry, 1988). These patterns of change were related to their cognition or thinking, identity and ethical development. These changes were assumed to account for experiences both within, and external to the university context. Perry (1988) described changes in thinking as a type of evolution in the way individuals interpret their world. Perry (1988) identified four main epistemological positions, which progress in stages: dualistic, multiplistic, relativistic and commitment to relativistic.
Individuals who held dualistic views about the nature of knowledge believed that absolute truths (right/wrong) exist and such truths can be transmitted to an individual from an authority or expert.
147 When individuals began to consider knowledge in a multiplistic way, they accepted that in addition to absolute truths, there were some things that could not be known with any certainty. Such individuals believed that knowledge comprised both personal opinions and ultimate truths. They relied less on authorities for absolute truths but personal opinions and truths were still considered to be “right” or “wrong”.
Individuals who considered that knowledge was actively and personally constructed, viewed knowledge in a relativistic way. Absolute truths could no longer exist because truth was considered to be relative to individuals’ personal interpretations of experiences. Relativistic thinking therefore constituted a major shift in epistemological beliefs.
In commitment to relativistic, as the final epistemological position relativistic thinking was still a feature, but some beliefs were more treasured than others and were committed to in a flexible manner. These epistemological beliefs were considered to influence learning.
Schommer (1993a) and Ryan (1984) reported that the more learners regarded knowing as dualistic, the more likely they were to measure their understanding based on factual standards.
Relativistic thinkers, on the other hand, were more likely to consider that comprehension was related to understanding and application. Individuals with relativistic beliefs are more able to reflect on different ways of thinking rather than focussing on content only. The ability to compare different ways of thinking reflects "meta-thinking, the capacity to examine thought, including one's own" (Perry, 1981, p. 88). Being able to practice meta-cognition enables learners to see other peoples' points of view. It also enables them to reflect on relationships so they can integrate information into relational wholes instead of maintaining isolated pieces of information.
Perry’s study reflects a developmental approach to epistemological beliefs. Other studies (e.g.
King & Kitchener, 1994, 2002; Kuhn & Weinstock, 2002; Moore, 2002) present a developmental model similar to that of Perry. These developmental models have been criticised for being one-dimensional and having a stage-like character (Kienhues et al., 2008).
More recently, epistemological beliefs have been viewed as a multi-dimensional and multi- layered aspect of individuals’ belief systems (Buehl & Alexander, 2001; Schommer, 1990;
1993a, 1993b; Schommer-Aikins, Mau, Brookhart, & Hutter, 2000; Schommer-Aikins 2002;
148 Schraw, Bendixen, & Dunkle, 2002). According to this model individuals may have either naive or sophisticated beliefs. Schommer (1990; 1993a, 1993b) established five dimensions of epistemological beliefs namely, (1) belief about the source of knowledge / omniscient authority, (2) belief about the certainty of knowledge / certain knowledge, (3) belief about the structure of knowledge / simple knowledge, (4) belief about the pace of acquiring knowledge / quick learning, and (5) belief about the stability of knowledge / innate ability (Schommer 1990, 1993a, 1993b).
According to the multidimensional structure of epistemological beliefs individuals who possess naive epistemological beliefs maintain that knowledge is definite, that is, accurate or correct; that knowledge is simple or straightforward in that it consists of disconnected or separate parts; that the source of knowledge is from a wise or well informed authority and transmitted to learners; that the ability to learn is inherited and fixed; and that the speed of learning is fast or never (Schommer 1990, 1993a, 1993b).
On the other hand, those who possess sophisticated or developed beliefs are thought to believe that knowledge can be correct or incorrect depending on the context or situation; that knowledge has a multifaceted structure consisting of many interrelated parts; that knowledge is constructed individually by using logic or tentative experimental evidence; that the ability to learn can be improved; and learning depends on the effort put-in by learners (Erdamar &
Alpan, 2013).
Buehl and Fives (2009) claim that, while the role of teachers’ epistemological beliefs with respect to teacher education and practice has been studied (e.g., Hofer & Pintrich, 1997;
Patrick & Pintrich, 2001; Woolfolk- Hoy & Murphy, 2001) relatively few empirical studies have been reported on. However, as cited in Buehl et al., (2009) qualitative studies through interviews and/or questionnaires, have found that pre-service and practicing teachers’ beliefs about knowledge: Are varied and may change depending on the context (e.g., Olafson &
Schraw, 2006; White, 2000; Yadav & Koehler, 2007); Can change as a result of instruction (e.g., Brownlee, Purdie, & Boulton-Lewis, 2001; Gill, Ashton, & Algina, 2004); May influence how and what they learn in teacher education classes (e.g., Ravindran, Greene, &
Debacker, 2005); May influence teaching practices (e.g., Sinatra & Kardash, 2004; Yadav &
Koehler). Ravindran, et al., (2005) found that pre-service teachers’ beliefs about the simplicity of knowledge were related to shallow levels of cognitive processing. With respect
149 to teaching practices, Yadav and Koehler (2007) found that pre-service teachers’ selection and interpretation of effective video cases were reflective of their beliefs about the simplicity of knowledge and students’ metacognitive ability.
Olafson and Schraw (2006) found that there were inconsistencies between the beliefs expressed by practicing teachers and their classroom practices. Studies have also acknowledged that teacher beliefs are complex, in that; beliefs may not necessarily fall into discrete categories (e.g., Olafson & Schraw, 2006; White, 2000). Instead, individuals may hold multiple beliefs that are both general and specific to a field. Furthermore, Many, Howard and Hoge (2002) found evidence that pre-service teachers hold different beliefs about knowledge, depending on whether they are focused on teaching or learning (i.e., considering themselves in the role of the teacher in a classroom or considering themselves in the role of the learner in a teaching education program). This is significant in that, the teacher participants in this study may be regarded as learners to the programme and to the imperatives of the new curriculum.
Piaget’s (1985) notion of assimilation and accommodation are also viewed as learning processes. Hence, teaching provides opportunities for these processes by involving learners both in routine tasks and in challenging new tasks (Billett, 2006). This reflects a constructivist view of learning. With the influence of previous experiences, biases, and beliefs on learning and knowledge, it becomes clear that learning, knowledge, and realisation or understanding are individual units establishing a particular view of the world, which makes sense for the individual. Thus, bias as the control of an individual’s feelings, interpretations, and expectations may be seen as the essence of an individual’s attitudes and aptitudes (Harteis, Gruber & Hertramph, 2010).
While various studies in epistemological beliefs (e.g., Perry, 1970; Kuhn & Weinstock, 2002;
Schommer, Calvert, Gariglietti, & Bajaj, 1997; King & Kitchener, 1994; Schommer, 1993b) may have different underlying theoretical assumptions, they all claim that there is change over time from the so-called naive epistemological beliefs towards sophisticated beliefs. It is possible for example, that a teacher may initially believe that knowledge is firm and unchanging, either correct or false, and is passed down by an expert, but with time s/he becomes induced into believing that knowledge is more multifaceted and relativistic, accepts the uncertainty and changeability of truth, and changes to the notion that knowledge is
150 construed individually (Kienhues, et al., 2008). Within the context of this study and based on the assertion about changing epistemological beliefs, it may be possible to identify such changes in the practices of teachers from traditional towards reformation.
4.5 THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE TEACHER DUE TO CURRICULUM