153 knowledge and beliefs are regarded as the main links between Professional Development (PD) and teaching practice (Borko, 2004; Kubitskey & Fishman, 2005). Moreover, teachers’
knowledge and beliefs can be changed through professional development and/or classroom practice (Kubitskey & Fishman, 2005; Putman & Borko, 1996).
Ni and Guzdial (2008) proposed a ‘teacher change model’ consisting of four categories or factors that may influence teachers’ decisions to adopt reforms. They referred to these factors as ‘adoption factors’ (p.3). These adoption factors included the following: (1) Teachers’
knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about curriculum; (2) Teachers’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about learners; (3) Teachers’ knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about self (the teacher);
(4) Quality of intervention (PD) activities such as workshops, conferences and other teacher education opportunities. While Ni and Guzdial (2008) incorporate such aspects as learning goals, content coverage, preparation time and contextual factors into category (1) that is, knowledge, attitudes and beliefs about curriculum, for the purpose of this study, these aspects have been separated. In addition, these categories were modified to read as, ‘Teachers’
knowledge and beliefs………’ Attitude has been left out because within the context of this study ‘teachers’ beliefs’ incorporates attitudes. Hence, analysis involved data with respect to:
(1) Knowledge and beliefs about the Life Sciences Curriculum; (2) Knowledge and beliefs about subject matter knowledge; (3) Knowledge and beliefs about general pedagogical knowledge; (4) Knowledge and beliefs about pedagogical content knowledge; (5) Knowledge and beliefs about pedagogical context knowledge; (6) Knowledge and beliefs about self (teacher). The data with respect to the abovementioned six categories was analysed and compared with the data from classroom observation to determine whether the participant teachers practiced IPW using transformed strategies, partially transformed strategies or traditional strategies.
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Figure 4.1: The inter-relationship between constructivism, epistemological beliefs (EB), conceptual change (CC), changing role of the teacher (CRT) and classroom practice of IPW
Note: The outermost (purple) circle represents ‘constructivism’
4.6.1 Conceptual Change and Constructivism
Different individuals construct alternative conceptions from the same information. Also, studies have shown that learners come to the classroom with preconceptions or beliefs or views about scientific phenomena, known as ‘naive’ knowledge or ‘prior’ conception that is often different from the established or accepted facts (Cinici, Sozbilir, & Demir, 2011;
Alparslan, Tekkaya, & Geban, 2003; Palmer, 2003). In order to help bring about conceptual change, Cinici and Demir (2013) maintains that it can be best accomplished through learner- centred, active learning experiences based on the constructivist approach to learning. The mechanisms which bring about such conceptual change is based on Piaget’s constructivist mechanisms of assimilation and accommodation, which underpins the “conceptual change”
learning model of Posner et al., (1982). Utilising constructivist teaching and learning strategies will help teachers identify their learners’ naive conceptions or ideas and plan their lessons accordingly with the aim of bringing about conceptual change. Conceptual change has become a hallmark in the principles of constructivist practice of teaching and learning (Duit, 1994). When teachers help learners to elicit prior knowledge and create dissonance,
CLASSROOM PRACTICE OF
IPW
CRT CC
EB EB
155 conceptual change occurs as new and meaningful understanding is built upon the prior or naive knowledge. When conceptual change takes place due to the adoption of intellectual tools and the use of these tools in a variety of contexts, then such a change is construed as occurring at the societal level. This therefore highlights the social nature of knowledge acquisition. Active participation and conversation are necessary for restructuring as well as cognitive change. ‘Social or physical interactions’ and ‘active participation’ are essential principles of constructivism. The principles of active participation, learner-centeredness, social interactions, and eliciting of prior knowledge have been identified as teaching and learning strategies that promote conceptual change. Hence, the existence of this close interrelationship between conceptual change and constructivism.
When implementing IPW various concepts and processes for example, ‘hypothesis’, variables and how to control variables as part of the experimental design, pose challenges to learners as well as teachers. Understanding how conceptual change occurs, will help teachers plan appropriate constructivist strategies accordingly
4.6.2 Conceptual Change and Epistemological Beliefs
Conceptual change revolves around the restructuring and reorganisation of existing knowledge structures in order to overcome specific naive or distorted beliefs and knowledge about science concepts. According to Posner et al., (1982) a person’s conceptual ecology consists of his/her conceptions and ideas entrenched in his/her epistemological beliefs. It is therefore important to understand teachers’ epistemological beliefs about teaching knowledge.
From a conceptual ecology point of view, the fundamental ideas and epistemological beliefs deeply influence a learner’s interaction with new knowledge or beliefs and challenges.
Similarities can be identified between fostering changes in epistemological beliefs and the task of promoting ‘conceptual change’ (Kienhues, et al., 2008). How and why, such changes take place, has been researched and addressed in the Conceptual Change Model of Posner et al., (1982) and the Cognitive Change Model of Dole and Sinatra (1998). These models highlight the issue of dissonance or disequilibrium between existing beliefs and new experiences, which may lead to dissatisfaction with current concepts. The discrepancy that results has to be resolved.
The ability to change is dependent on the potency and sense of the existing conception as well as the obligation to it. Dole and Sinatra’s (1998) model also takes into account such motivation as, the need for reasoning and understanding and importance of a topic to an
156 individual. Hence, in order for a teacher to help facilitate conceptual change s/he must first be induced into transforming underdeveloped or naive beliefs about science teaching and learning, especially IPW and related concepts into more sophisticated beliefs thereof. In doing so the teacher may then be motivated to provide routine and challenging opportunities together with the necessary support and guidance to the learners to help bring about conceptual change.
4.6.3 Epistemological Beliefs and Constructivism
The ability to compare different ways of thinking reflects "meta-thinking, the capacity to examine thought, including one's own" (Perry, 1981, p. 88). Being able to practice meta- cognition enables learners to see other peoples' points of view. It also enables them to reflect on relationships so they can integrate information into relational wholes instead of maintaining isolated pieces of information. In this way ones thinking and beliefs strives for greater sophistication. To achieve this, social interactions and conversations play a significant role in reflective thinking. Understanding how constructivist teaching and learning strategies such as, co-operation, collaboration and conversation by the teacher, may be employed in the classroom is of importance to help accomplish conceptual change. Therefore, it is of paramount importance for teachers to have an understanding of the role of epistemological beliefs, conceptual change, and constructivism in bringing about changes in the practice IPW.
Co-operation, collaboration and conversation are strategies that can be utilised to bring about such changes.
4.6.4 The Changing Role of the Teacher and Constructivism
The role of the teacher will now change to that of a ‘facilitator’ of learning within the reformed Life Sciences curriculum. Hence, the teacher will need to operate within a constructivist paradigm. This will therefore entail making adjustments to aspects such as classroom management, planning, preparation and design of lessons and/or activities. The model developed as part of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks will therefore help in analysing and interpreting the changing roles of the teacher.