4.2 CONSTRUCTIVISM AND ITS APPLICATION TO THE TEACHING
4.2.3 Instructional strategies underpinned by constructivism in science lessons. 132
132 Johnson, 2000). In addition to testing the validity of their constructs, application allows the learner to further define the inter-connectedness of the new knowledge to a greater variety of contexts, which will integrate the new knowledge permanently (Baviskar et al., 2009)
Based on the principles or essential features of constructivism and the focal issues discussed, it can be argued that constructivism has common features to that of IPW. In addition, constructivism is widely accepted as the most popular underpinning instructional reform in science education in the world today, in addition to the great attention it received in the past decade or two (Richardson, 2003). With the introduction of the NCS in South Africa, teachers were expected to have knowledge and beliefs that are consistent with inquiry-based teaching and learning and therefore constructivism. What this knowledge and beliefs are and how it impacts on the practice is the focus of this study.
Irrespective of the vast volume of literature on constructivism and the complexity of its nature, there is a common thread, which emphasises the need for active participation by the learner together with the common recognition of the social nature of learning. Hence, the achievement of the critical and developmental outcomes of the NCS in creating thinking beings who will be able to make meaningful and deeper understanding of the world around them is possible within a constructivist learning environment. Such a learning environment is entirely consistent with an inquiry approach, since it is acknowledged that one of the advantages of inquiry-based teaching and learning is that it enables learners to learn in a constructivist way (Richardson, 2003). Furthermore, since investigative practical work (IPW) is an example of inquiry-based teaching and learning it is therefore possible to analyse its implementation in Life Sciences using constructivism as a framework.
133 inquiry-based teaching and learning and the South African Life Sciences curriculum. The 5Es sequence of stages of instruction or learning processes and the scientific and engineering practices of the NGSS have been shown to align with the inquiry skills as illustrated in Table 3.3. This therefore, implies that the features of 5Es and NGSS are in line with the inquiry skills and therefore the South African Life Sciences curriculum and the practice of constructivism. Supporting this approach to teaching, Duit (2001) emphasises the popularity of constructivism in science education, stating that constructivism has become a most valuable tool for science educators not only for science teaching and learning but also for research in these fields.
Constructivist educators strive to create classroom environments where science learners are required to critique the thinking and learning process, gather, record, and analyse data;
generate and test hypotheses; reflect on previous knowledge; and create their own meaning (Crotty, 1994). Kuhn and Dean (2008) described constructivist scientific activity as involving four stages: inquiry or intent, analysis, inference and argument.
During the inquiry/intent stage, investigators identify or formulate questions that can be tested experimentally.
In the analysis stage, they design and conduct informative experiments and interpret data.
In the inference stage, they draw conclusions.
In the argument stage they communicate their findings and assertions.
Although the educational potential for inquiry learning is significant, this learning cannot be achieved by merely placing learners in the midst of a complex scientific field for free-reign investigation (Germann, Aram & Burke, 1996). Learners may still not have the necessary pre- requisite knowledge for such activities and therefore will need to be guided and supported by teachers. The South African Life Sciences curriculum ensures that there ought to be a gradual surrendering of much of the control by the teacher in the lessons involving practical investigations from Grades 10 to 12.
Constructivist approaches transfer the control of the teaching and learning situation to the learners. In order to achieve this teachers need to understand learner’s curiosity and their needs so that they will be able to design appropriate lessons. These lessons should consist of instructions that are flexible enough to allow time for learners to experiment, think, and
134 reflect about what they are doing and learning (Brooks & Brooks, 1999). However, this flexibility does not give learners a license for a ‘free-for-all’ or ‘anything goes’ whereby the teacher has no role or purpose. Instead, constructivism supports the reconsideration or changing role of the teacher from one that controls authority to one who is a guide and a mediator or from an authoritarian controller to an authoritative facilitator. In this respect, the teacher guides and supports the learning process by asking probing questions, making suggestions and getting learners to make suggestions, providing appropriate and relevant feedback and explaining concepts instead of trying to explicitly transfer correct information to the learner (Tetzlaff, 2009). Furthermore, in a constructivist set-up the learners are responsible for developing and improving their own understanding and meaning-making of their experiences. The teacher on the other hand is responsible for ensuring that a conducive learning environment prevails by providing the necessary and appropriate opportunities and resources to enable such learning (Tetzlaff, 2009) rather than being a director of teaching.
One of the ways of accomplishing this is by making use of appropriate questions and by providing learners with opportunities in asking questions, and by providing appropriate feedback to guide and support learners.
However, this role of the teacher can only be successful if the teachers’ knowledge and beliefs is taken into account and supported appropriately to be in sync with the requirements of the reformed curriculum. The common view of an evaluation process and as indicated in Chapter One is that reform efforts should take the beliefs of teachers into consideration since a teachers’ belief can lead to an active manifestation of reform in the classroom (Van Driel et.
al., 2001; Powell & Anderson, 2002). In addition, teachers’ knowledge must also be taken into account in order to evaluate the successful implementation of the curriculum. Teachers’
knowledge, beliefs and practices are intertwined because what a teacher knows and believes affects what and how s/he will do things (Crawford, 2007; Mansour, 2009).
Constructivist learning applications require a rich and interactive learning environment, which supplies learners with the requirements to access knowledge, to analyse it, organise and use it in order to solve problems (Gagnon & Collay, 2001). From a teaching and particularly from an instructional point of view, constructivist classrooms are more open in the sense that they allow for learner autonomy, freedom to engage with a variety of resources and build on prior knowledge and experience to solve problems. However, the role of ‘guidance’ or
‘scaffolding’ cannot be overlooked. The role of ‘scaffolding’ provided in guiding social interaction thus becomes central to the Vygotskian view. Based on Vygotsky’s theory, one
135 important step in designing instruction to develop complex mental functions is the analysis of the ‘zone of proximal development’ as mentioned earlier. The zone of proximal development is created in the interaction between learners and the teacher or in co-operative problem solving with peers (Vygotsky, 1978).
This however, refers to solving unstructured problems (Karen, 2002) and not structured problems where the solutions may be retrieved from the textbook. The current study involved open-ended investigative practical work which is unstructured. This understanding of learning from the constructivist perspective makes the distinction between meaningful learning and rote learning. For meaningful learning to occur, individuals must choose to relate new knowledge to relevant concepts and propositions which they already know (Bodner, 1986). In rote learning, on the other hand, new knowledge may be acquired simply by verbatim memorisation and arbitrarily incorporated into a person’s knowledge structure without interacting with what is already there.
Penner (2001) argues that constructivism suggests that as we experience something new, we internalise it through our past experience or knowledge construct we have previously established. He further purports that,
“Learning activities begin by considering the role of learners’ current knowledge, how knowledge is constructed, and the role of the activity in building knowledge” (p.3).
According to Baviskar et al., (2009) within a constructivist classroom there may be a variety of common practices. However, not all of these lessons may be regarded as being constructivist lessons. To be regarded as being constructivist the lessons ought to be underpinned by the principles of constructivism as discussed in section 4.2.2 in this chapter.
Science education from a constructivist perspective therefore, provides learners with science knowledge in such a way that they not only understand the scientific concepts and principles, by memorising and learning the definitions and formulas, but they also understand the importance of scientific knowledge in their everyday life (Duit, 2001). When one considers the essential characteristics of a constructivist classroom, it seems obvious that it differs from the traditional classroom, both from a teaching and learning perspective. Furthermore, knowledge is viewed as being dynamic for both the teacher and the learner (Educational Broadcasting Corporation, 2004).
136 In a traditional classroom setting the teacher is in charge of a great deal of intellectual work in the classroom. S/he plans the scope and sequences, presumes and pre-packages a lot of learning. In the constructivist classroom on the other hand the learner is in charge of that pre- packaging. The learner gets vague information and unformulated problems, and then has to put together his/her own personal question and figure out how to go about answering it with the teacher being the mediator of that meaning–making process (Brooks & Brooks, 1999).
This may seem like a recipe for the lack of learning. However, this situation need not arise if the lesson is well planned to allow for appropriate guidance from the teacher. In fact the active role of the teacher in constructivism cannot be dismissed as claimed by some conservative educators (Seigel, 2004). Rather, it modifies the traditional role by assigning the teacher the role of guiding learners to construct knowledge by connecting it to their prior knowledge rather than reproducing a series of facts and transmitting it to learners. By doing so, a constructivist teacher provides tools such as problem-solving and inquiry–based learning activities with which learners formulate and test their ideas, draw conclusions and inferences, and convey their knowledge in a collaborative environment. Knowledgeable teachers with a great deal of enthusiasm and determination become facilitators who engage and guide their learners in investigative activities by providing the necessary scaffolding to assist learners in developing new insights and connecting them with their previous knowledge or experiences.
They are therefore no longer classroom leaders who traditionally used to instruct learners to do what they deemed the only way of proceeding in an investigation towards a pre- determined result.
Although there are specific teaching methodologies that are strongly constructivist, such as inquiry-based teaching methods, it is not necessary to use one of these methods to be constructivist. Likewise, simply following a methodology in a ‘cookbook’ fashion will not guarantee constructivism (Baviskar et al., 2009). The constructivist approach to teaching and learning promotes critical and creative thinking and collaborative learning. Moreover constructivist methodology promotes the act of self-motivation, self-directed learning to begin a life-long quest for new skills and knowledge.
While constructivism is widely accepted and it has been extremely influential in science education globally, as pointed out in the introduction to this chapter, it is not without criticisms. For example, Kirchner, Sweller and Clark (2006) have pointed out that the minimal guidance supported by constructivism is not efficient or effective compared to most
137 guided instruction. However, these authors do not provide a definition of ‘efficient’ or
‘effective’ instruction. Kirchner et al., (2006) reported that when learners learn science in classrooms with pure-discovery methods and minimal feedback, they often become lost, frustrated, and their confusion can lead to misconceptions. In addition, they indicated that since false starts are common in such learning situations, unguided discovery is most often inefficient. In order to counteract the above claims, the following argument is presented with respect to this study: As pointed out earlier the South African Life Sciences curriculum does not follow the hard line approach of ‘discovery learning’. As far as investigations are concerned there is a continuum from closed-ended to open-ended activities from Grades 10 to 12. This involves a gradually increasing complexity from Grade 10 to Grade 12. An analysis of this increasing complexity is illustrated in Table 3.2 in Chapter Three. The implication here is therefore one of a decreasing degree of guidance by teachers from Grades 10 to 12.
Kirchner et al., (2006) also make an assumption that in explicit or strongly guided methods the feedback to learners is greater and only minimal or absent in constructivist lessons.
Feedback is really dependent on the teachers’ knowledge and teachers’ beliefs, the abilities of learners and the goals of the particular lesson. Hence, whatever methodology is utilised appropriate feedback is important. Since the strongly guided lessons have more details provided to the learners there should be fewer queries and therefore less feedback because the learners will be in a fairly ‘secure’ environment. In the constructivist lessons there should be a greater amount of queries due to minimal information provided to learners. Hence, there ought to be greater interactions between peers as well as between the learner and the teacher seeking clarity. Therefore, there should be a greater degree of feedback enhancing the meaning-making process through dissonance/disequilibrium, equilibration and assimilation and accommodation resulting in appropriate conceptual change. Questioning by the teacher and the learners is encouraged in a constructivist setting. The responses and the interactions in such a setting allows for continual clarification and hence, feedback for meaningful learning and understanding.
The claim, that ‘false starts’ are rife in constructivist settings because such learning situations are inefficient. These so called ‘false starts’ should in fact serve as a motivation for the teacher to provide the necessary guidance for the linking or integration of the learners’ prior knowledge with the new knowledge.
138 With respect to cognitive load, Kirchner et al., (2006) notes that cognitive load theory suggests that the free exploration of a highly complex environment may generate a heavy working memory load that is detrimental to learning, particularly amongst novice learners.
This suggestion is particularly important in the case of novice learners, who lack proper schemas to integrate the new information with their prior knowledge. With respect to the current study, the context involves Grade 12 classes. As pointed out earlier, there is an increasing complexity from Grade 10 to Grade 12 with respect to the demands of the investigative practical work (IPW). At the Grade 12 level there ought to be open-ended tasks with minimal guidance, since these learners are not regarded as novices within the schooling context. They would have had opportunities and experiences with investigative practical work (IPW) which would have been less complex in Grades 10 and 11. Therefore, in Grade 12 open-ended tasks with minimal information should be promoted.
Despite their sympathy with constructivism, Tobias and Duffy (2009) found that the lack of empirical evidence for the effectiveness of constructivist teaching methods turned constructivism into a theoretical model rather than a pedagogical method. While this study showed a qualitative link between constructivism and the teaching and learning of IPW it is possible to use the finding as a base for empirical studies in this regard.
Boden (2010) acknowledges and accepts that “scientific concepts are generated and constructed by human minds as supported by constructivism; it cannot be denied that realism is the foundation of many well-proven processes in science and engineering" (p. 84).
When one considers the advantages and the criticisms described above, it becomes necessary for the teacher who engages with the constructivist approach to teaching and learning to find the right mix of methods for optimising the learner’s benefits. In order for this to happen the teacher will need to use a number of support strategies such as, questioning to see how learners may have constructed information related to the topic; engaging learners in investigative activities that enable them to explore on their own and come to their own conclusions; interacting with each learner to see how s/he is constructing the new information; and helping them to devise reliable and meaningful conclusions.
It is therefore of critical importance for science teachers to keep abreast of not only scientific knowledge but also knowledge relating to pedagogy. Furthermore, from teacher cognition
139 point of view teachers construct their own schema from their experiences in order to comprehend, plan for, and respond to the demands of their classrooms. This therefore depends on teachers’ “self-reflections; beliefs and knowledge about teaching, learners, and content;
and awareness of problem-solving strategies endemic to classroom teaching” (Kagan, 1990 p.
419). This study is concerned with understanding the relation between teachers’ knowledge and teachers’ beliefs, and its impact on the implementation of IPW in the classroom.
In summary, the views of a number of authors have been presented to highlight both the advantages and disadvantages of constructivism. While the pros and cons were identified, the common denominator is that “constructivism shifts the focus of attention from the prepositional ‘knowing that’ to the pragmatic ‘knowing how’” (Riegler, 2005, p.4) which is central to learning science. The South African Life Sciences curriculum seems to have been guided by such a shift. An analysis of the curriculum, literature on constructivism and IBTL, resulted in findings which show commonalities among constructivism, inquiry-based teaching and learning and the South African Life Sciences curriculum as illustrated in Table 4.1. While there are controversial views around constructivism, its closeness to inquiry-based teaching and learning approaches and particularly IPW makes this to be the most viable and valuable overarching framework for analysing, interpreting and understanding the data in this study.
4.3 CONCEPTUAL CHANGE THEORY
Research in science education and cognitive science focuses on how people learn science and how this knowledge is applied in their daily lives (Özdemir & Clark, 2007). Hewson (1981) highlighted three aspects of science education knowledge namely, that the knowledge which people possess is very significant in order to make sense of their experiences; that people strive to make sense of natural phenomena; and that different individuals construct alternative conceptions from the same information.
Several studies over the years have shown that learners possess preconceptions and beliefs or views about scientific phenomena that is often different from the accepted scientific facts (Cinici, Sozbilir, & Demir, 2011; Alparslan, Tekkaya, & Geban, 2003; Palmer, 2003). This knowledge is sometimes referred to as ‘naive’ knowledge or ‘prior conceptions’. Educators and researchers who are concerned with this issue have tried to answer questions such as, where do these non-scientific conceptions come from; why do some conceptual difficulties
140 exist; and what can be done by teachers or (those more knowledgeable) to facilitate conceptual change (Bilgin & Geban, 2006).
Educators have further acknowledged the persistence of these non-scientific conceptions in their practice, even after teaching. Moreover, they also realise that these conceptions have possible influences on later learning (Beeth, 1993). To counteract this state of affairs, reform documents suggest a need to reduce the volume of information covered through shallow traditional teaching and learning, which places a great deal of importance on committing concepts, rules and generalisations to short-term memory and which prevents understanding (AAAS, 1993). Other studies have shown that children begin to acquire their knowledge from the social environment in which they grow, through the influence of everyday culture and language. This is then organised into narrow, but coherent, explanatory frameworks that may not be the same as currently accepted science (Vosniadou, 2002). Also, that knowledge constructed by learners characteristically has two properties in that, it can be incorrect, and it can often hamper the learning and understanding of commonly established knowledge (Chi &
Roscoe, 2002). In addition, Chi and Roscoe (2002) differentiates between two types of naive knowledge namely, preconceptions that can be simply and readily reviewed through instruction and misconceptions that is robust and resilient to change, even when not supported by concrete artefacts.
According to Cinici and Demir (2013) conceptual change can best be achieved through learner-centred, active learning experiences based on the constructivist approach to learning.
Learning methods based on constructivism require that teachers not only recognise their learners’ existing ideas but also take them into account in planning their teaching so that the aim of conceptual change is fulfilled (Tsaparlis & Papaphotis, 2009).
Posner, Strike, Hewson and Gertzog (1982) used Piaget’s notion of assimilation and accommodation, and built on these basic concepts to enunciate a theory referred to as a
“conceptual change” learning model (Geelan, 2000). Assimilation and accommodation are different mechanisms which bring about conceptual change.They asserted that if a learners’
current conception is useful and if the learner can solve problems within the existing conceptual schema, then the learner does not feel a need to change the current conception.
When the current conception does not successfully solve some problems, the learner may