Learning and Change
7.1 Introduction
7.1.2 Churches
Hitzhusen (2007) argued that a religious perspective has had limited space in environmental theory. However, the moral dimension of the environmental crises provides just reason for the involvement of religions (Simkins 1994; Conradie 2011).
As Conradie (2011: 7) argued, moral formation typically occurs within faith communities and consequently “ecological transformation of religious traditions is critical to the emergence of an ecological ethos”. Anderson (2010: 45) explained that for many traditional societies, “Environmental management is almost always regarded as a divine charge, enforced by supernatural beings”. He provided compelling reasons for the value of religion in tackling modern social-ecological risks. This includes: the wider social universe beyond one’s immediate circle that religion encourages (in many cases this includes the non-human world); the religious teachings on love; the ethical systems religions create and enforce through developing the conscience of the believer; the solidarity created by religion; and the hope and strength religion can give people.
There is growing consensus, as expressed at the international Earth Summit (Rio, 1992) by its Secretary General Maurice Strong, that some spiritual foundation to our environmental relationship is essential. Strong stated that the Rio decisions require
“deep moral, spiritual, and ethical roots if they are to be successfully implemented”
(Sider 1995). In 1990, a group of renowned scientists, including Carl Sagan, signed an
‘Open letter to the Religious Community’ urging religious people to join the movement to save the environment (Sider 1995). In their statement, the scientists acknowledged that the ecological threat is so massive that disaster cannot be avoided unless the religious community joins the struggle. The role that churches can potentially play in social-ecological resilience is also being increasingly voiced in the literature (e.g. Ashley 2006; Hitzhusen 2006). Hitzhusen (2006), for example, argued that ecotheology provides a rich source of environmental values and ethics that can contribute to environmental education in a variety of contexts.
However, the church has been critiqued for its lack of environmental involvement.
Achtemeier (1992: ix) stated, “Few subjects have been more neglected by the pulpit in this country [USA] in recent years than an explication of the relation between nature and God”. While investigating the environmental awareness within churches in South Africa in 1991, Jacklyn Cock (a sociologist) discovered that there is a “blind spot” and “deep silence” on environmental issues within the South African church (Conradie 2011). Berry (1993:114-115) is scathing of the Christian church’s role in supporting the damaging economic status quo: “It has, for the most part, stood silently by, while a predatory economy has ravaged the world, destroyed its natural beauty and health and divided and plundered its human communities and households”.
A number of ideologies have been identified that uphold the frequent disregard for environmental concerns by churches. Anthropocentrism and the related attitude that
humans are at the centre of the universe is often identified as an ideology characterising Christianity (Dobel 1977; Conradie 2011; Gottlieb 2009). Supporting anthropocentrism is a spiritual:natural dualism where the spiritual (human) is of supreme importance and the natural is viewed with little regard (Conradie 2011). It is commonly believed that humans are the only animals with a soul and are thus the bearers of moral value (Gottlieb 2009). With nature objectified, the non-human world becomes the backdrop of humanity’s drama (Gottlieb 2009) and a place to subdue and conquer in meeting one’s needs and desires, promoted by the dominion mandate (Rajotte & Breuilly 1992; Gottlieb 2009). An otherworldliness and preoccupation with human salvation from the earth can also characterise some Christian ideologies (Conradie 2011).
From within the Christian tradition there is, however, a wealth of ideological resources that challenge those described above and modern Christian religion is increasingly advocating respect for the earth, love for non-humans and becoming reflexive about social and economic practices and priorities (Gottlieb 2009).
An examination of western history indicates that the anthropocentrism now rife, is more a consequence of the secularisation of western society than religion. As Bauman (1994: 23) stated, the ambition of the Renaissance "was nothing less than to found an entirely human order on earth, and one that would be erected entirely with the help of human capacities and resources alone”. Humanity consequently replaced God as the centre of the universe (Bauman 1994). Ashley (2006) explored how Judaeo- Christianity can offer an alternative environmental ethic to anthropocentrism that is rooted in a theocentric position, where God is placed at the centre. The real distinction is no longer between humans and the rest of creation, but rather God and creation.
This affirms a sense of humanity belonging to a “community of creatures” (Daly &
Cobb 1994: 405). Within Christian theology there is also recognition of the particular stewardship role humanity has within the rest of creation where we are to be representatives of Christ’s love, expressing “the imago dei, not for ourselves but for creation” (Breuilly 1989: 57). Archbishop Desmond Tutu is quoted as saying: “We…
acknowledge that the living out of our beliefs concerns most deeply the care and nurture of all living things and the environment upon which they depend” (Mash no date). A theology that focuses on the immanence of God supports a narrative that moral value extends beyond the human and also challenges spiritual:nature dualisms, as creation is no longer viewed as separate from God (Peacocke 1983; Polkinghorn 1986).
Christians realise the richness of environmental teaching in the Bible, as well as the importance of environmental sustainability. For example, in June 1994, almost 500 Christian leaders signed the declaration named: ‘On the care of creation: Evangelical Declaration on the Environment’, thus expressing the importance of environmental care to their faith (Gottlieb 2009). This is a two and a half page document that expresses ecological concerns, strong pro-ecological values and intentions for action.
A growing number of South African churches are joining the environmental movement and organisations have been established to support this. Examples include the Johannesburg Anglican Environmental Initiative (JAEI), which has established five eco-congregations in Johannesburg, SAFCEI (Southern African Faith Communities Environment Institute), A Rocha, and the Evangelical Environmental Network. A Rocha, a Christian conservation organisation working for the protection of fragile ecosystems in co-operation with local people, began in South Africa in 2004 (Goddard 2008). SAFCEI is working on setting up eco-congregations across South Africa and is currently developing an eco-congregation handbook. This reflects and supports the growing South African eco-theological movement.
The chapter moves on to discuss the importance of learning, if schools and churches are to play a transformative role for increased social-ecological resilience.