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4.3 Data collection methods
human actions and structures (Connole 1998) and “the contradictions of [a] world of appearances accepted by the dominant culture as natural and inviolable” (Kincheloe &
McLaren 2008: 265).
Critical methodology has clear links to Critical Realism, because of its emphasis on understanding underlying oppressive factors and “ideological binds” (Malone 2006).
My research, based on a concrete case study, aimed to bring to the surface the structures and mechanisms that were supporting the degradation of the Boksburg Lake social-ecological system and explore possibilities for transformation. This formed the basis of a critique of more generalised western social-ecological relations, which has clear links to a critical methodology.
4.3.1 Participant observation
Three main types of participant observation have been identified (Atkinson &
Hammersley 1998). These are: complete participation, where the researcher’s role as observer is hidden; participant-as-observer, where the researcher adopts one or two roles in the social setting being observed and actively participates in social activities;
and complete observer, where the researcher observes the situation without any contact with the researched.
My means of observation was participant-as-observer, which was a natural outcome of undertaking action research in the Boksburg community. I adopted the role of a researcher and practitioner of the environmental education initiative and participated in a variety of social activities. This included staying with the chairperson of the Boksburg Historical Association, regular attendance at the monthly Boksburg Lake Forum meetings, active participation in the annual Boksburg Lake Day, observation of three lessons at Witdeep Primary when the resource pack, designed as part of the initiative, was being used, and attendance of church services. Through the relationships established with local people I was able to experience and record meaningful events that occurred, as advised by Lindlof (1995). Throughout the process, a field journal was kept, and photographs and video recordings were taken.
4.3.2 Semi-structured interviews
Interviews are indispensible in case study research (Gillham 2000) and provide a space to deepen understanding of the social subject’s perspective and experience on a matter (Lindlof 1995). Three interview categories have been identified, namely the structured interview, the informal interview and the semi-structured interview (Berg 1998). The semi-structured approach is most commonly used in case study research (Gillham 2000) and was the main interview method adopted in this study.
Themes were prepared in advance, but each informant was not necessarily asked the same set of questions in a particular order as questions were adapted to suit each respondent and varied according to how the interview was progressing. Most of the interviews were recorded on a tape recorder and a word-for-word transcription of each interview was produced as soon after the interview as possible. This proved helpful in the transcription process as it was easier to decipher muffled words from memory recall.
In total, thirty-eight semi-structured interviews were conducted, typically lasting between forty minutes to an hour, to gain a better understanding of local people’s experience of the Boksburg Lake social-ecological system, and the SSE initiative, from various vantage points. Interviews included twenty-two interviews with participating teachers between 2009 and 2013; two interviews with role players involved in the initiative in 2009; eight interviews with local faith leaders in 2010; two interviews with participants of an Eco-Congregation workshop in 2010; three interviews with Boksburg Forum members in 2012; and one interview with a municipal employee in 2012. Appendix D provides an example of the semi-structured interview schedules (2009-2010) used when interviewing teachers.
4.3.3 Focus groups
The focus group is a method used in qualitative research, which can be described as a structured, semi-structured or informal group interview (Fontana & Frey 1998) consisting of a relatively homogenous group of between six to twelve people with certain experiences in common (Lindlof 1995). The benefits of focus groups include the following: they increase the number of people interviewed at a time; they can be stimulating to respondents (Fontana & Frey 1998); the group discussions aid memory recall (Fontana & Frey 1998) and document a range of opinions and experiences on an issue (Lindlof 1995: 174).
In total, nineteen semi-structured focus groups were conducted with learners who participated in the environmental education initiative. The purpose was to examine learners’ experience of the initiative, receive feedback on positive and negative aspects of the initiative, and document patterns of identifying, knowledge and agency and their drivers. See appendix E for the semi-structured interview schedule for focus groups conducted with learners (2009 to 2011).
A group typically consisted of between five to ten learners from a particular school. In a few cases a whole class participated. The selection of learners was generally left to the teachers involved. Some groups were made up of the top students; some were based on learner representation and others on those who were available. The focus groups lasted about an hour each, and were recorded and transcribed word for word.
Emphasis was placed on creating a relaxed atmosphere and developing rapport with the participating learners. This was done using humour, treating the learners with respect and adopting an approachable, easy-going stance. Photos of the environmental education initiative were used as a stimulus (Lindlof 1995) and for memory recall.
In 2009, six focus groups were conducted in five schools, namely, Boksburg High, Diakomea School, Goede Hoop Primary (where two focus groups were conducted with grade 6 and grade 7 learners respectively), St Michaels Primary and Witdeep Primary.
These particular schools were selected based on the rapport gained with teachers, as well as to represent the variety of schools participating. Seven focus groups were conducted in 2010. Four of the participating schools (Boksburg High, Goede Hoop Primary, St Michaels Primary and Witdeep Primary) remained the same as in 2009, in order to maintain continuity and to explore whether change could be documented. Two of the new schools, Reiger Park High and Reiger Park Primary (where two focus groups were conducted), were chosen because of their inspiring involvement in environmental action. In 2011, five focus groups were conducted. Four of these schools were the same as 2010, namely Boksburg High, Goede Hoop Primary, Reiger Park High and Witdeep Primary. Leswabe Primary joined the SSE initiative in 2011 and was therefore also chosen. In 2012 one focus group was conducted with Reiger Park High, a school that was engaging in increasingly meaningful and inspiring environmental practice.
4.3.4 Document analysis
Document analysis generates data from public and or personal documents by interpreting their content and is described as an unobtrusive data collection method as the researcher is not directly connected to those who are being researched (Nachmias
& Nachmias 1990).
Historical archives of Boksburg’s local newspaper, the Boksburg Advertiser, provided the richest source for document analysis. These were examined both to provide an historical exploration of local worldviews and meaning attached to the Boksburg social-ecological system and a critical examination of structures and practices (generative mechanisms) that have led to the current social-ecological risk in the system. It is acknowledged that newspapers can have the unfortunate tendency of expressing biased views (something I was in fact looking for to reveal underlying ideologies and values), misquoting people and not being entirely accurate in their descriptions of events. The aim was to read all editions from the 1990s to the present.
However, some editions were missing in the 2000s so could not be used. A representative sample from the early 1900s to 1990 was also read. The following years were read as sources of data: 1903, 1904, 1925, 1946, 1950, 1960, 1970, 1980, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2011.
Content analysis was used to select and analyse data from archives. Content analysis involves the specification of the content characteristics that will be systematically and objectively selected and analysed (Nachmias & Nachmias 1990). In this case, I was informed by O’Donoghue (1986) who identified that a social-ecological system is made up of biophysical, economic, political and social aspects. I consequently selected all articles that had one or more of these themes in relation to the health and value of the Boksburg social-ecological system. Any information of possible interest was copied in an attempt to gain as complete a picture as possible.
To provide rich descriptions of the Boksburg Lake case study and emerging community of practice working to restore Boksburg Lake, document analysis was also undertaken on email correspondence between role players from 2009–2013 and the documentation and minutes of meetings during the same time frame. Meetings included those I had conducted with role players, when engaging as a practitioner, and the monthly Boksburg Lake Forum meetings that began in 2011. Content examined included events that happened according to a time frame, the various roles stakeholders adopted and what emerged through the process.
Learners participating in the environmental education initiative produced a rich variety of documents, which were transcribed or scanned for analytical purposes. These documents were useful for providing insight into the learners’ experience of the initiative, and their developing knowledge, identity and agency in relation to the Boksburg Lake social-ecological system. The documents included the following:
• Solitaire sheets (209) written by learners during the 2009 and 2010 Boksburg Lake Days (see section 3.6.3 for a detailed description of this day) where they recorded their experience of smells, sounds, feelings and what they were learning. The schools represented were Boksburg High, Goede Hoop Primary, Hoërskool Voortrekker, Reiger Park High, Reiger Park Primary, Summerfields Primary, Sunward Park High and St Michaels Primary.
• Nine vision statements written during the 2009 Boksburg Lake Day, where learners expressed their vision for Boksburg Lake. The schools represented were Summerfields Primary, Sunward Park High and Witdeep Primary.
• Seventy-two essays written by participating learners. In 2009 and 2010, the essays were written on specific themes directed by me, namely “Giving Boksburg Lake a sustainable future” and “What can I do, what can my school do and what can my community do to save Boksburg Lake?” Schools represented were Boksburg High, EG Jansen, Goede Hoop Primary, Hoërskool Voortrekker, Reiger Park High, Summerfields Primary, Sunward Park High and
Witdeep Primary. In 2011, essays were written by learners from Dawn Park High without my prompting that expressed their experience of the Boksburg Lake Day.
• Six statements handed to the municipality during the 2010 and 2011 Boksburg Lake Days, which expressed the learners’ feelings about the condition of Boksburg Lake and the role they would like to play in its restoration. Schools represented were Boksburg High, Goede Hoop Primary, Hoërskool Voortrekker, Reiger Park High and St Michaels Primary.