As proposed by Allen and Kilvington (2001) and Hautbois et al. (2012), stakeholder analysis was used in this study to help identify the key stakeholders involved. Such identification included assessing their interests and the way in which such interests affected the way in which African legacy impacts were perceived as well as what they perceived African legacy objectives linked to the 2010 FIFA World Cup to be (in terms of differing expectations) and future challenges. Using such an analysis was also important, because it helped to identify and to define stakeholder interests, characteristics, relationships and participation. This study considered the relevant mega-event stakeholders such as soccer fans and officials, government departments, football organisations, event managers and NGOs in both Cameroon and Nigeria.
Figure 2.3: The multi-conceptual framework of mega-event legacy, stakeholder theory and political economy
The main focus of the above model is mega-event legacies. The flow chart shows the relationships between the event and the relevant stakeholders, including the event rights holder, the governmental agencies and the community, which all have motives or vested interest in such events. The diagram also depicts the relationship between the event and the political economy impact (environment), in that the events themselves are characterised by political forces, which are influenced by the institutions or by the stakeholders who could be impacted on by the event. During the run-up to the mega-event, specifically during the bidding stages, the political economy is seen to dominate. However, such dominance is seen to recede post-event. The political economy is a by-product of many social, economic and political forces which might shift over the event life cycle. Political regimes might come and go, and the volatility of financial markets, natural disasters, acts of terrorism and other
NGOs Community
Government Right holders/ owners
(FIFA, IOC)
MEGA-EVENT
Mega-event legacy (planned/
unplanned and positive/ negative) Tangible legacy e.g. infrastructure such as stadium. Intangible legacy e.g. social cohesion
Political environment
unforeseen events can also alter the political economy for a mega-event over time. Finally, the mega-event legacy is seen as the output or end product. Such legacy could be planned/
unplanned and positive or negative in nature. To some extent, it might influence the political economy of the impacts and the legacies generated. Thus, the integration of multiple approaches/ theoretical frameworks allows for a more comprehensive examination of a range of issues and influences, as well as for an analysis of multiple impacts.
Although diverse, the three theories (political economy, mega-event legacy and stakeholder theory) have been used to highlight the relevancy of examining stakeholder perceptions of the legacy impacts that are linked to mega-event hosting. The discussion illuminates the fact that mega sport events have become a vital part of a global political economy, which has witnessed the production shift from “developed to less developed societies and an expanding focus in the developed world on the ‘branding’, ‘theming’ and consumption of image and lifestyle” (Nauright, 2004: 1326). The developed and developing countries that host mega- events share the same similarities owing to globalisation, as both share “an acute sense of political-economic and identity-based vulnerability in the dynamic and volatile landscape of the current era” (Black, 2007: 273). The decision to bid for, and to host, a mega-event can largely be seen to be a political one (Dowse, 2011). The bids that are made in relation to such an event tend to take place in an increasingly complex international arena, which is highly contested (Swart and Bob, 2004). The impact of global forces and processes on bidding has a profound impact on the economy before, during and after bidding process (Cornelissen and Swart, 2006). Under a specific set of circumstances, the mega-events are “deployed as political instruments by governments to which activities of signalling, legitimisation or constituency-building could be aligned” (Cornelissen, 2010b: 3013).
Cornelissen (2008b: 483) asserts that “mega-events aptly encapsulate the hybrid nature of the global political domain today: it is made up of the confluence of governmental/ state actors (at various levels), (media and sport) corporations, sport federations, and societies (or
‘consumers’) who all interact and pursue often divergent agendas”. Cornelissen, (2008b: 483) further states that a mega-event “entails the entanglement of various international economic sectors and markets, involves the production of several types of products (such as the event itself, memorabilia tied to the event, tourism infrastructure or media artefacts), speak[s] to a wide band of consumers, and involve[s] the intersection of various policy spheres both within and outside of the confines of the state”. Therefore, there are countless legacy (positive/
negative) effects that are associated with the hosting of a mega-event that might affect a range
of stakeholder groups. Donaldson and Preston (1995) urge that managers (of a mega-event) must consider the legitimate interests of groups or individuals that might be affected by their actions. Paying close attention to the interests and well-being of those who can assist or hinder the achievement of the mega-event objectives is the central admonition of the stakeholder theory. According to Cornelissen et al. (2011), given the magnitude and prominence of mega-events in contemporary times, and the substantial financial investments made by the host cities involved, there is a growing interest in examining the legacies that such events bring. The conceptual framework for the research presented above provides insights into an all-inclusive approach to be taken towards examining and assessing the perceptions of the African legacy impacts created by the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Africa, as experienced by the soccer fans and stakeholder groups involved. The next chapter presents the literature review with specific focus on sport fans and mega-event legacy impacts.
CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW