categorise three types of fans, of which the first consists of those who are normally not interested in football. Furthermore, such fans only start to take an interest in the game of football when the FIFA World Cup starts and are most likely to watch fewer than ten matches during the duration of the tournament. Swart et al. (2008) further determined the second kind of FIFA World Cup fan as having an average interest in football. Such fans start to show an interest in the FIFA World Cup during the qualifying stages for the tournament and they are likely to watch fewer than 20 games. The authors state that such fans are likely to watch non- live broadcasts of the games while also having an interest in games that are played by national teams other than their own. The third category of FIFA World Cup fans can be deemed to consist of true football fans, with them showing an interest in the World Cup during the qualifying stage too, and making sure that they watch more than 20 matches during the duration of any one tournament.
travel motives in relation to the 2002 FIFA World Cup in Korea, Kim and Chalip (2004) found that despite the fact that the FIFA World Cup was the main motive for travel, the attractiveness of the host destination still played a key role in the decision to travel.
Similarly, in their study of the 2005 Pan American Junior Championships hosted in Canada, Taks et al. (2009: 138) found:
Participants and spectators who participated in tourism activities during the event had obtained information about the tourism activities prior to coming to the event, and, as such, were likely to return to the host destination, and were strongly inclined to recommend the destination to friends and relatives.
Based on the aforementioned statement, Taks et al. (2009) further develop and advance a conceptual framework for the visualisation of successful sustainable outcomes from one-time mega-events (see Figure 3.4 below.) According to such a framework, it is critical to ascertain the motives that are associated with sport fans attending mega-events.
Figure 3.4: A framework for the identification of sustainable outcomes of events Adapted from: Taks et al. (2009)
Figure 3.4 above posits that it is equally important to determine the identities of such mega- event travellers, and to become aware of the purpose of their visit, as well as whether they had previously visited the host destination. This information can eventually serve as a source of information, in turn, for the traveller about the host destination (Taks et al., 2009). The information that is gathered from the three sets of enquiries then assists in the amalgamating of tourism activities that will satisfy the attendees during the event, helping to ensure that they leave the destination with a positive perception not only of the event, but also of the hosting
Motives and identity
Visit purpose
Previous visit
Information search
Event attendance and tourism activities
Return or repeat visits
Recommendation of destination
destination in terms of its competitiveness in respect of tourism activities. The result should be positive word-of-mouth communication about the destination, and therefore, positive recommendation of the venue as a potential tourism destination for colleagues, friends and relatives (Taks et al., 2009).
According to Bouchet et al. (2011) although fan motivation is a multidimensional construct that is influenced by a variety of variables, avid fans are rather more concerned with the enjoyment of the event itself than with other aspects of their experience. According to Getz (2003: 55), “travel, in general, is motivated by a combination of seeking and escaping from in both personal and interpersonal contexts”. In the context of sport events such behaviour has been found potentially to have two generic dimensions. Sport events away from home tend to exert an appeal based on their uniqueness or quality which, when combined with the temptation of providing an opportunity to escape from the familiar and routine, is likely to generate personal benefits, making it worthwhile to spend both time and resources on attending them (Getz, 2012). However, Gammon and Robinson (2004: 224) argue that attempting to pinpoint sport tourism motivators is plagued with a number of difficulties, “the complexity and copious number of motives for participating in sport and tourism events are well documented”. Moreover, the fact that such motives tend to change over time, as well as to be evident in broad and contrasting areas of study, further exacerbates the problem (Gammon and Robinson, 2004).
Despite the above, several motivational theories exist that are applicable to the analysis of participation and fan behaviour in sport (McDonald et al., 2013). Although different researchers have used a range of instruments in such analysis, the research that has been conducted across the board has consistently found that the motives of fans are multidimensional with the frequency, the likelihood and the amount of interest exhibited in attendance at events being influenced by and largely predicted by their motives (Kim and Chalip, 2004). Hinch and Higham (2011), Hudson (2012) and Weed and Bull (2004; 2012) acknowledge that motives are concerned with the interaction between people, activities and places, and that these motives, which can change over time, can either be shared or unique to individuals. The authors advance that these motives reflect the participants’ characteristics, interests, goals, needs and personality.
Zhang et al. (2001) argue that motivation is an insufficient basis to use in gaining an understanding of the drivers of sport event attendance. They found that identifying the
demographic characteristics (such as age, gender and education) of spectators facilitated the prediction of attendance frequency, in contrast to the use of motivational dimensions alone for such predictions. The level of income earned is also often argued as helping to determine the likelihood of attendance at events, as it helps to determine the amount of discretionary income that is available to the would-be spectators.
Kim and Chalip (2004) examined the effects of motives, background and interests of, as well as the constraints on, those fans who tend to travel to the FIFA World Cup events. They identified ‘pull’ factors, which relate to the attractions that are associated with the host destination, and ‘push’ factors, which are associated with intangibles relating to the motives, needs and interests of travellers. Furthermore, Yu (2010) and Bresler (2011) suggest that push factors can be referred to as the motives or as the reasons to travel whereas pull factors are related to external sources, including destination attributes. Kim and Chalip (2004) observe that there are grounds expecting ‘push’ factors to affect the ‘pull’ that an event provides. The attractiveness of an event should, at least in part, be a function of a fan’s level of motivation, with the higher that a fan’s motivation with reference to an event is, the more attractive the event should seem to them. Figure 3.5 below depicts a conceptual model of the degree of interest expressed in attending an event, as well as the significance of the intention of attending such an event.
Chen (2007) identifies four clear, though interrelated, antecedents of the establishment of loyalty for sports tourists, namely satisfaction, attachment, involvement and commitment.
Despite sport consumers using teams and players to construct their own identities and their sense of self, they can also be fickle and critical at times. In their awareness of such a phenomenon, Smith and Stewart (2007: 156) stress that “an array of factors affects sport consumption, in general, as well as specific decisions to travel long distances to secure a special experience or to participate in a particular sport event”.
Push factors Mediating factors Outcomes
Figure 3.5: A conceptual model of event interest and intent to attend Source: Kim and Chalip (2004)
Kim and Chalip (2004) point out that the destination development that an event stimulates is largely driven by the amount of attendance that it is expected to generate. Hall et al. (2010) denote that empirical understanding of the factors that influence sport event attendance is vital for the sustainability of the events, as high attendance levels tend to attract sponsor revenue, and to assist with economic and social development. Furthermore, Getz (2013) cautions that it is crucial to understand the factors that motivate sport tourist attendance at events, because sport tourists are diverse in nature and their motivations differ as far as comparing individuals to families or to groups of friends, and also according to age groups, gender and cultural groups. Additionally, Spronk and Fourie (2010) and Bladen et al. (2012) contend that tourists differ in their sports consumption, in their characteristics, and in their length of stay at the destination, as well as in their expenditure patterns. This is due to the factors that motivate their travel, as well as their attendance levels and their buying behaviour patterns (Giulianotti, 2002; Yoshida et al., 2013).
For Turco et al. (2002), several factors influence the sports tourists’ engagement in sporting events and indicate that motivators differ among sport tourist classifications. Hall et al. (2010) assert that attendance motives include economic, geographic and socio-demographic factors as well as factors relating to accessibility, entertainment, performance, the attractiveness of the game, and the emotional and individual preference of the product. Based on the motives expressed, Turco et al. (2002) reiterate that organisers and participants are motivated by the
Demographics Age
Education Income Gender
Previous attendance Fan motives Aesthetics
Vicarious achievement Eustress
Interest in players Supporting national team Travel motives
Escape
Learn about host country Socialisation
Attraction Event interest Constraints Risk Financial
Attendance motives Desire to attend Feasibility of attending
need to obtain monetary benefits from sporting events, with the latter participating in the event as a way of showcasing their preparedness to enjoy the activity.
According to Wann et al. (2002), sport fans and spectators can be motivated by any of a number of different factors. Researchers have, however, found that eight motives are quite commonly expressed (McDonald et al., 2002). Wann (1995) developed the Sport Fan Motivational Scale (SFMS) in this regard, which highlights the following motivations:
eustress (positive arousal and stress release), escapism, entertainment, aesthetic pleasure (appreciation of the beauty of a sport performance), a feeling of group affiliation, the need to spend time with the family, potential economic gain (to be gained from gambling) and self- esteem (personal enhancement) issues. Similarly, Robinson and Trail (2005: 59) note Sloans’
proposal when they state that “most motives for attending sporting events to fulfill related needs tend to fall within the ambit of one of the following theories: the salubrious effects theory; the stress and stimulation theories; the catharsis and aggression theories; the entertainment theory; and/ or the achievement-seeking theories”. In relation to what amounted to critical incidents and emotional moments of the London 2012 Olympic spectating experience, Emery et al. (2013: 160) identified “five key interrelated moments in a linear sequence that ensured a highly satisfying and memorable spectator event experience were identified – to build moment, watch the moment, be in the moment, capture the moment and share the moment”. These moments collectively formed the personal experience.
Exploring the key dimensions above that have tended to dominate debates regarding sport fan motives and consumption, Smith and Stewart (2007) point out that the growing number of theoretical models regarding the motivations of sport fans is apparent. As such, the authors grouped sport consumption motivations into three key dimensions, namely those of psychological, socio-cultural and social belonging; incorporating Wann’s (1995) SFMS as illustrated in Table 3.2 below.
Table 3.2: Key dimensions of, and motives for, sport consumption behaviours
Dimension Motive
Psychological Eustress
Escape
Aesthetic pleasure Drama and entertainment
Socio-cultural Family and social interaction
Cultural connections
Social belonging Tribal connections
Vicarious achievement
Source: Smith and Stewart (2007)
3.5.1 Psychological motives
According to Smith and Stewart (2007), the psychological motives in sport consumption are concerned with fulfilling various emotional and intellectual needs. Turco et al. (2002) and Smith and Stewart (2007) denote that psychological motivations are associated with individually held reasons and with the enjoyment resulting from sporting events. The psychological motives, as are demonstrated in Table 3.2 above, comprise stress release, escape, aesthetic pleasure and entertainment. Hagen (2008) and Yu (2010) further mention that such self-esteem motivation factors are associated with the provision of opportunities to feel good about oneself.
Eustress, as a psychological motive, influences sport event attendance, according to Smith and Stewart (2007), who refer to the positive stress, excitement and psychological stimulation brought about by engaging in a sporting event. The reputation of the event, the rarity of the event and the presence of celebrities in the field, according to Getz (2003), also contribute to sport tourist attendance, as they result in excitement and psychological stimulation. Getz (2003) points out that packaging an event is important, since some of the prospective travellers seek a wide range of leisure activities. This, in turn, can increase the sport tourists’
expenditure at the host destination. Moreover, Bresler (2011) asserts that football tourists attend sporting events in search of the stimulation and the arousal that are embedded within watching the respective tournament. Some sports tourists, according to Smith and Stewart (2007), travel to attend sporting events as a way of intensifying their experience by focusing on the event rather than on the concerns of daily life. According to Hall et al. (2010), if sport fans perceive that an event will be fun, challenging, stimulating and satisfying; then they are much more likely to want to attend another event of the same nature in future.
Turco et al. (2002) suggest that the escape that is involved in sport tourism refers to the escape from a perceived usual physical environment and from the daily routine, such as that which is brought about by having to conform to the expectations of a job, the home and even society itself. In its simplest form, escapism involves diversion from the mundanity of ordinary daily life (Smith and Stewart, 2007; Yu, 2010). In contrast, Weed and Bull (2004) opine that sport tourists travel to engage in sporting activities as a way of escaping from the pressures of everyday life. Smith and Stewart (2007) and Yu (2010) advise that escape, as a psychological motive, assists sport fans to engage in a world of passion, spontaneity and uncertainty. In addition, the researchers claim that since attendance at sporting events requires travel away from home, it influences the engagement of prospective travellers as a way of establishing desirable experiences.
While Getz (2003) points out that sporting events appeal to sport tourists because through escaping from familiar environments and from the daily routine, the uniqueness and quality of the event can be experienced by travellers. Such travellers can enjoy quality experiences at the host destination by generating personal and interpersonal benefits. Turco et al. (2002) emphasise that sport spectators’ motivation lies in watching sports as a way of satisfying desires and interests. In contrast, Smith and Stewart (2007) observe that sport tourists also travel to attend sporting events as a form of escaping from an over-stimulated, rather than an under-stimulated, situation. Overall, sport tourists attend sporting events as a way of escaping from a stressful environment, and so as to capture a heightened level of stimulation.
Hagen (2008) points out that observing sporting events provides aesthetic pleasure for fans.
Giulianotti (2002) claims that occasional sport fan attendance at sport events is influenced by the artistic enjoyment surrounding the event or arises from them supporting their teams. Hall et al. (2010) acknowledge that sporting events, in general, tend to act as a push factor for sport fans as they have the potential to offer pleasant incidents that, in turn, lead to unforgettable holiday experiences. Furthermore, Weed and Bull (2004) indicate that sport events have the potential to create memorable experiences for the attendees which can be shared with other family members and friends who did not attend the respective events. Such memories can also be the result of experiencing the host destination, the sport tourism facilities and the behaviour of the local residents or of interacting with members of the non- sporting public (Smith and Stewart, 2007). The memories can also be due to the experiences of the trip and to the presence of companionable fellow travellers. Sometimes the aesthetic pleasure involved might be the result of a sport tourist’s interaction with the sport object,
rather than a passive visual reaction to it (Smith and Stewart, 2007). For example, sport fans might be excited by the design of the Moses Mabida Stadium in Durban and by its shopping complex, rather than by the football game taking place in the stadium as such.
For sport fans, watching a sporting event or visiting a sport attraction, such as a museum, tends to provide visual bliss, regardless of whether they have attended the same or a similar event before (Smith and Stewart, 2007). Bresler (2011) acknowledges that experiencing the beauty and the grace of a football event also can be aesthetic in nature. The physical skills, the good looks and the glamorous lifestyle of participants, according to Smith and Stewart (2007), can also influence attendance by sporting fans and provide aesthetic pleasure for them.
Moreover, Getz (2003) denotes that the excitement of the crowd and the general atmosphere of the event also act as a motivation of the sport tourists’ attendance levels and of their spending behaviours. Football tourists can be motivated to attend a tournament as a result of their interest in the players of their favourite team, and/ or their sense of commitment to the team (Bresler, 2011).
3.5.2 Socio-cultural motives
Socio-cultural motivations are generally related to interactions among sport tourists (Turco et al., 2002). In contrast, Smith and Stewart (2007) contend that a sport event has a strong social dimension, whether the participants concerned play as part of a team, whether they are spectators watching others play or whether they just talk to their friends and colleagues about it. Adherents to the same school of thought point out that a sporting event acts as an interpersonal occasion to which people gravitate in units of families, supporters and state and national cheerleading squads. In this sense, spectators in particular tend to attend sporting events to express their level of commitment to the sport or to interact with others who enjoy the same sport while, in contrast, participants might engage in the sporting activity in order to interact with their companions (Turco et al., 2002).
Cultural interactions and family and social interactions are considered as social motives that affect the sport tourists’ decision to attend sporting events (Yu, 2010). Smith and Stewart (2007) postulate that sporting events create an opportunity for families to spend time together and that the experience can be used to help fulfill family needs in the same way as a holiday or weekend outing does. Getz (2003) indicates that some sport fans attend sporting events to fulfil their social needs such as to spend time with a group of friends or with family members.
According to Giulianotti (2002), some sport tourists are likely to use their vacation time for