Broadly speaking, a research design aims to provide an overall structure of the processes and procedures that a researcher follows in order to collect and to analyse data in terms of a particular study (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005; Dagnino, 2013). The research approach that was adopted and tested in this study was a case study blueprint. A case study is an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within a real-life context (Veal, 2011).
The mode of enquiry is an in-depth examination of a specific phenomenon, dealing with a full body of evidence (including documentation and interviews). Babbie and Mouton (2002: 281) underscore the fact that case studies take multiple perspectives into account and attempt to
understand the influences of multi-level social systems on subjects’ perspectives and behaviours. Pellissier (2007) puts forward the argument for case studies as being an all- encompassing method or comprehensive research strategy. He maintains that case studies are important, in that they use multiple methods that are both qualitative and quantitative in nature for data collection. Moreover, Yin (1994: 13) posits that such a “methodological approach of case studies relies on multiple sources of evidence”.
The collective case studies (Cameroon and Nigeria) in the current research endeavour allowed the researcher to study the phenomenon of the perceptions pertaining to the African Legacy Programme linked to South Africa’s hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup among different stakeholder groups in different regions under similar conditions.
4.4.1 Qualitative and quantitative approaches
Creswell (2009: 4) refers to qualitative research as “a means to explore and understand the meaning that individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem”. According to Durrheim (2011: 47), “qualitative methods allow the researcher to study selected issues in depth, openness, and detail as they identify and attempt to understand the categories of information that emerged from the data, while quantitative methods in contrast, begin with a series of predetermined categories, usually embodied in standardised quantitative measures and use this data to make broad and generalisable comparisons”. Creswell (2009: 18) asserts that “a qualitative research approach allows the researcher to make knowledge claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives or advocacy/ participatory perspectives, narratives, phenomenologies, ethnographies, grounded theories and case studies”. The researcher collects open-ended, emerging data with the primary intent of developing themes from the data.
Brynard and Hanekom (2006) underscore that, in qualitative research, such methods as case studies, the in-depth interviewing of key informants, participant observation, questionnaires and the perusal of personal documents are used.
In contrast, unlike qualitative research, quantitative research is associated with analytical research, with its purpose being to arrive at a universal statement (Brynard and Hanekom, 2006). Quantitative research should be underpinned by a distinctive theory as to what should pass as warrantable knowledge (Creswell, 2009: 18). A quantitative approach is one in which a researcher makes use of post-positivist claims for developing knowledge, employing such strategies of inquiry as experiments and surveys, and collecting data using predetermined instruments that can generate statistical data (Baggio and Klobas, 2011). Altinay and
Paraskevas (2008: 75) assert that “quantitative research aims to determine how one variable affects another in a population, by quantifying the relationship between variables (the things you measure)”. They contend that, in order to quantify the relationships between the variables, researchers use statistical methods such as relative frequencies, differences between means, correlation coefficients and other tactics.
In juxtaposition to the above, Thomas and Nelson (1996: 367) assert that qualitative research seeks to understand the meaning of an experience for the participants in a specific setting and how the components mesh to form a whole, whereas quantitative research tends to focus on analysis (that is, the taking apart and examining of components of a phenomenon). On said basis, the current study makes use of an amalgam of the two research approaches discussed above (meaning the qualitative and the quantitative methodology). The qualitative paradigm in the present study was realised by the asking of open-ended questions within the survey questionnaire, which focused on the perceptions of the respondents. In response to such questions, the respondents had an opportunity to offer their opinions with the least possible interference or bias on the part of the researcher. The quantitative paradigm was realised by the structured portions on the questionnaire survey, which led to the generation of statistical results in terms of the perceptions of the African legacy impacts of the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in Africa.
4.4.2 Sampling procedure
In the documented literature that is relevant to the field of research techniques, a population sample is often referred to as a small portion of the total set of objects, events or persons which, together, comprises the subject of a study (Dwyer et al., 2012; Strydom, 2006; Veal, 2010). Therefore, sampling is simply a process of selecting participants for a piece of research. It is a means that is used to obtain a sample or a portion of the survey population (Finn et al., 2000; Hammod and Wellington, 2013). Altinay and Paraskevas (2008) identify a low degree of accessibility as being a major obstacle preventing the study of all members of a targeted population. Furthermore, Lind et al. (2000) and Durrheim (2011) postulate additional obstacles. In terms of such a rationale, the authors highlight the significance of selecting a sample in a research endeavour of this nature. They contend that involving the entire population in a study causes it to be a costly effort, besides being a time-consuming process.
However, Brynard and Hanekom (2006) place emphasis on and caution regarding the need to employ randomness and stratification techniques in selecting any given sample. Doing so, they posit, could contribute towards ensuring the representativeness of the sample, the validity
of the collected data, the reliability of the results or findings of the study and the elimination of bias.
In general terms, sample size depends on the basic characteristics of the population, the objectives of the research, the data analysis, the level of credibility assured, the time and financial constraints, the non-response factors, the degree of statistical precision as well as the basis of the judgement made (Struwig and Stead, 2001). Brynard and Hanekom (2006: 56) indicate that no fixed rules govern the determination of sample sizes – there are only guidelines that suggest what a representative percentage of the population to be studied should be. The guidelines are as follows:
The more homogenous the population is, the smaller is the sample that is required and the more heterogeneous the population is, the larger is the sample that is required.
The greater the probability of sample error is, the larger the sample should be, so that the conclusions drawn are as accurate as is possible.
In this study, the fieldwork involved a survey focusing on soccer fans and key informants in both Cameroon and Nigeria. In Cameroon, the research team was made up of 7 postgraduate students who travelled from South Africa (2 from the Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2 from the University of the Western Cape and 3 from the Walter Sisulu University). The students concerned all had a solid knowledge of how to administer questionnaires to soccer fans. Such students played an instrumental role in obtaining valid responses from the respondents, due to their prior experiences gained during the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa, where a similar visitor and fan survey was completed.
Furthermore, other local fieldworkers were appointed in both case study areas, and trained on the content of the questionnaire and the procedure of administering it. Key questions related to the survey were discussed with the fieldworkers to help clarify any misunderstandings and misinterpretations that might arise. Considering that this study was designed taking into consideration basic ethical considerations in research, such issues as conduct and consent were discussed and explained in detail.
4.4.2.1 Soccer fans
In both Cameroon and Nigeria, soccer fans were interviewed. The sample size was decided upon based on a table that was devised for determining how large a randomly chosen sample from a given finite population of n cases should be, such that the sample proportion p would
fall within .05 of the population proportion, meaning p with a 95% level of confidence (Isaac and Micheal, 1981). A typical football match in Cameroon and Nigeria can attract an average of 30 000 repeat fans. Accordingly, a total of 758 questionnaires (see Appendix A) was equally split (379 each) and administered to soccer fans in both case study areas. Such fans were chosen at specific popular stadiums (the Unification Stadium in Limbe, Cameroon, and the U.J. Esuene Stadium in Calabar, Nigeria) that had been noted as hosting international football matches on a specific game day. On each game day in question, trained fieldworkers were located throughout the stadium’s entry points in order to be able to apply the systematic stratified sampling method, according to which every 79th fan was chosen in order to ensure a more representative sample of the population surveyed.
4.4.2.2 Key informants
According to Gratton and Jones (2010: 170), key informants supply or inform a study with
“specialist knowledge, based upon their position or relevant experience”. Often, the key informant interviews can complement data collected from other sources. Cohen and Manion (1994: 89) refer to purposive sampling as a technique whereby “researchers handpick the cases to be included in the sample on the basis of their judgment of their typicality. In this way, they build up a sample that is satisfactory to their specific needs”. In the current study, such a technique was employed to administer semi-structured face-to-face interviews (see Appendixes B) to key resource persons, including the following:
Relevant government departments (sports, arts, culture and tourism) in Cameroon and Nigeria supplied background information regarding any planned legacies, based on the predefined African legacy intentions regarding Africa’s first mega-event and the management challenges encountered thus far.
The NGOs linked to the FIFA Football for Hope (FFH) in Cameroon and Nigeria were also a valuable source of information. In recent times, the Football for Hope movement has become an attractive platform for the public and private sectors, civil society and multilateral development institutions to invest sustainably and to develop innovative partnerships for social development (FIFA, 2013). Today, the Football for Hope movement provides access to programmes that serve hundreds of thousands of young people all over the world. The movement is a catalyst for innovation and social investment for various sectors of society, and is increasingly gaining recognition and
maximise the potential of football by making a concrete contribution to sustainable development (FIFA, 2013).
Football officials, including match officials, administrators, club presidents and owners of the FECAFOOT and the Nigerian Football Association (NFA), were interviewed.
To minimise the study limitations, the questionnaire was self-administered with the assistance of trained fieldworkers, who possessed basic knowledge of the relevant study areas in both Cameroon and Nigeria. In total, 10 key informants each were interviewed in Cameroon and in Nigeria.