In order to avoid confusion in the interpretation of terms, the following key words are defined as they will be used in this particular study.
1.12.1. Vocational Education and Training
There are many definitions of the concept Vocational Education and Training (Billet, 2011). The term VET is used broadly mainly in European countries, whereas UNESCO prefers to use Technical and Vocational Education and Training (EuropeAid, 2014). Vocational Education and Training (VET), Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) and Further Education and Training (FET) are terms often used interchangeably to refer to education mostly focused on youths for acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and also knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life (UNESCO, 2013a) . In this study, VET is taken to mean skills training for out of school youth and young adults in vocational training centres registered by the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education in Zimbabwe. These could be government, non-governmental or private centres. Vocational education refers to skills- based programmes which are designed for skills acquisition in schools and colleges (Okoye &
Arimonu, 2016). Vocational education programmes focus on specific vocations for entry into a defined workplace.
1.12.2 Agriculture Education and Training
According to the United States Agency for International Development (USAID (2011) the term Agricultural Education and Training (AET) covers a wide range of mostly public sector education and training programmes provided to those who work in, and benefit from, agriculture and rural development activities. AET is broad in scope and is inclusive of activities such as undergraduate and postgraduate degrees in agriculture, diploma qualifications by colleges of agriculture and certificates and sometimes diplomas by VTCs.
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Agricultural training, often delivered in training centres or training institutes is offered to public sector employees as in-service programmes. It differs from agricultural extension in that while AET offers in-service formal training (in training centres) to farmers and those interested in working in agricultural research; agriculture extension is mostly non-formal and acts as a link between the farmer and technology. Agricultural extension, therefore, seeks to complete efforts by AET. The two, however, are closely linked in that extension operatives are a product of AET institutions, in most cases colleges of agriculture.
1.12.3 Curriculum
Many educators throughout history have tried to define the term ‘curriculum’, with different levels of success. As such ‘curriculum’ means different things to different people. Defining the concept curriculum has taxed many an educator and is often a political phenomenon (Hoadley &
Jansen, 2010; Jansen, 1990). Fraser and Bosanquet (2006) define curriculum as the interrelated totality of aims, learning content, evaluation procedures, teaching and learning activities, opportunities and experiences which guide and implement didactic activities in a planned manner. Another definition by Shizha and Kariwo (2011) maintains that curriculum involves a set of norms, knowledge and skills which society requires for its continuity and which the young generation has to learn in order to be acceptable and active members of society. Curriculum refers to what students should learn, within a framework of goals, objectives, content and pedagogy. According toParsons and Beauchamp (2012), concern with curriculum occurs at different levels starting with the international level (supra), national levels (macro), institutional levels (meso), classroom (micro) and student/ individual level.
This study used the Intended Curriculum Model (ICM) used in general education as used by (Kilpatrick & Johns, 2003). The ICM also operates in a similar manner with the model presented by Parsons and Beauchamp that describes layers of curriculum. At the highest point there is the system level where we have the intended curriculum. At this system level are general educational objectives which encompass what learners are expected to know and do (Kilpatrick & Johns, 2003). The second level is the assessed curriculum that represents what is tested in examinations. This level is smaller than the intended curriculum because it is not practical to test
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learners on every aspect in the intended curriculum. The third stage involves teachers coming up with the planned curriculum in their attempt to fulfill requirements of the intended curriculum. It has been established by a number of studies that teachers concentrate on areas they are comfortable to teach and may leave out those in which they lack subject matter knowledge (Kilpatrick & Johns, 2003). Because of this, the planned curriculum is not always the enacted curriculum. What is taught in the classroom is the enacted curriculum and this is the way in which learners can access the curriculum. The final stage is at the level of learners where they engage with the enacted curriculum for learning to occur.
1.12.4 Curriculum responsiveness
The concept of responsiveness when related to living organisms is seen as a prerequisite for survival. According to Ogude et al. (2005) responsiveness is behavioural change when incited by a stimulus. They further note that adaptation to changes in environmental conditions means that
‘learning’ is an ecological prerequisite of survival. In the same manner, responsiveness can be applied to social structures and other organisations that need to adapt to changes in their macro and micro environment for them to continue to survive. This includes higher education institutions such as universities and VET colleges. The origin of the concept of responsiveness is linked to systems thinking and has strong relations with behaviourist psychology (Holweg, 2005; Scheerens, Luyten, & van Ravens, 2011).
For Moll (2004), curriculum responsiveness suggests the possibility of judging the effectiveness of education programmes to meet the needs of a transforming society and the learner. Moll advocates for a broader view of responsiveness to include labour market responsiveness, socio- cultural responsiveness, broader economic responsiveness and responsiveness to government agendas. Education curriculum needs to respond at government policy level, teaching context, local community and students (Parsons & Beauchamp, 2012). A responsive curriculum involves the ability to change the content of what is learnt at policy level and also in the classroom. As applied to this study, there is need to see how the agricultural VET curriculum in the two colleges under study responded over the years to the learning needs of A1 farmers as well as to suggest alternative ways of responsiveness.
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1.12.5 Fast Track Land Reform Programme (FTLRP)
The FTLRP refers to the accelerated land reform programme which was sparked by land occupations in Zimbabwe from around the year 2000 onwards. It involved forced and often violent removals of thousands of former white farmers at the instigation of Zimbabwe’s War Veterans (Cliffe, Alexander, Cousins, & Gaidzanwa, 2011).
1.12.6 A1 Farmers
Under the FTLRP, Zimbabwe’s Ministry of Lands categorised models of resettlement into two main categories which are the ‘A1’ and ‘A2’ models. The A1 model promoted smallholder farmers who are referred to as ‘A1 farmers’ in this study, while the A2 model was meant for more middle to large scale farmers referred to as ‘A2 farmers’ (Chavhunduka, 2016) . The latter are not part of this current study. The A1 farmers engage in smallholder production on either small-scale independent farms of, on average, twenty hectares, or in villagised arrangements with shared grazing and clustered homes (Matsa, 2011; Muyengwa, 2013; Njaya & Mazuru, 2014; Scoones et al., 2011). Villagised arrangements have land sizes of, on average, five hectares, and have communal grazing of about twelve hectares. The majority of A1 farmers were former peasants from the overcrowded communal areas and who were mostly of low socio- economic status and often excluded from education.