3.9 Vocational education and training and the curriculum
3.9.3 VET curriculum
94
account both the coherence of the discipline subject and the limits on what can be learnt by students at different stages of their development.
95
Vocationalisation of the education curriculum has gained currency internationally with countries and international organisations endorsing it as a way of linking products of education systems with the labour market(Maclean, Jagannathan, & Sarvi, 2013). However, implementation of vocationalisation differs from one country to another with some countries introducing vocational subjects at primary school while others do so at secondary school level (Akyeampong, 2002).
Meanwhile, most countries continue to offer vocational subjects at post-secondary school level.
Institutionally driven provision of vocational education is now expanding across the world in response to social and economic developments in Asian, African and South American countries.
Institutions play a critical role in the provision of VET in Australia, Germany and the United Kingdom. VET in these countries starts from the school system. Provision in these countries, however, is not uniform.
In Asia, vocationalising the secondary school curriculum was adopted as an option for increasing access for more students to skills. It was done by exposing secondary school children to practical subjects (UNESCO, 2013a). Despite this thrust, vocationalising the secondary school curriculum has not been a smooth process. It has been faced with the challenge of attracting students in vocational subjects due to the perception of the inferiority of the vocational subjects to the academic ones. A lack of specialised equipment and facilities and the failure to meet demand has presented another difficulty (UNESCO, 2013a).
Vocationalisation of the curriculum on the African continent existed even before colonisation. It has been a permanent feature of traditional education, preparing generations for productive life in various trades such as basketry, pottery, weaving and others (Urevbu, 1988). However, vocationalisation is often criticised on the basis of the high cost associated with introducing technical and vocational subjects. Nherera (1994) notes that governments of developing countries still insist on vocationalisation despite acknowledging that vocational curricula are more expensive than academic ones. Critics of the vocationalisation agenda have also argued that the World Bank’s position supporting vocationalisation has since changed due to the apparent lack of success of these programmes to reduce youth unemployment, improve agriculture productivity and improve rural livelihoods (Katsande, 2016; Nherera, 1994, 2014). In the Zimbabwean case, vocationalisation of the school curriculum was introduced during the early
96
period of colonial rule from 1890-1923. More serious attention was given to the matter in the 1920s (Zvobgo, 2007)., learning methods, place of learning, teaching media and assessment and certification.
3.9.3.1 VET Curriculum: International perspectives
The effective implementation of VET programmes is dependent on the nature of the curriculum.
Great effort is needed in developing VET curricular that is relevant to the socio-economic and policy context in which it is provided. The African Union (2007) notes that the provision of quality TVET programmes should be based in relevant general and theoretical curriculum content. Billett (2003) notes that the vocational curriculum in Western counties, such as the United Kingdom, Australia and Germany is focused on behavioural curriculum. This curriculum emphasises the need to have measurable outcomes in vocational education. The vocational curriculum, therefore, focuses on increasing competency. This approach has led some countries to promote generic vocational competences considered applicable in workplaces. This approach was challenged for its failure to recognise that knowledge is context specific (Billett, 2003).
Billet suggests the sociogeneses of vocational practice. In that approach, the vocational curriculum frameworks functions with a set of generic competences. However, this has to be supported by socio-cultural practice, situated practice and other low level interactions at an individual level. At the international level, there is need for guiding concepts and procedures which identify key competencies that apply to diverse cultural practices. The identified competences can then be transformed by the cultural needs for particular vocational systems.
Particular vocational colleges have the ability to interpret the identified competencies based on situational factors to develop institution specific vocational curriculum (Billett, 2003). For acceptability of vocational curriculum, there is need for it to be adaptable to different situations.
3.9.3.2 Competency Based Education and Training
According to Marope et al. (2015) enhancing quality and relevance of TVET has been a goal for many countries, hence curriculum reform has been top of the agenda. This was necessitated by
97
the concern with poor quality provision and failure to respond to market needs. One of the key reforms was the introduction of Competency Based Training (CBT). CBT identifies the practical skills that make up occupational profiles and standards of performance required for successful employment. It focuses on the outcomes of training, that is, attained competencies (Marope et al., 2015). CBT requires active participation of industry in the development of demand-driven VET programmes in order to meet the needs of the economy. In such VET programmes, work integrated learning (WIL) is of great importance for it provides students with an opportunity to apply theoretical knowledge learnt in classrooms to practical work situations (Arfo, 2015).
CBT has been implemented in UK and Australia as an attempt to recast VET as an instrument of micro-economic reform. CBT is driven by the need to align skills development with the needs of the economy. CBT has been implemented in the majority of countries in sub-Saharan Africa with different levels of success.
3.9.3.3 Curriculum Reform in VET
Curriculum reform is widespread in both developed and developing countries in all levels of education including vocational education. The major drivers of curriculum reform include both external pressures such as the global economy, knowledge economy and technology, as well as internal or local drivers includinglocal economy, institutional requirements and needs of local communities (Adam, 2009). The need for curriculum reform in VET has been well documented (Wedekind, 2016; Buthelezi, 2016; Akoojee, Gewer and McGrath, 2005). In sub-Saharan Africa, curriculum reform has been key in the post-independence period in an effort to redress imbalances and inequalities of the past (Buthelezi, 2018). Curriculum reform in VET has taken many forms over the years including non-formal TVET. The African Union (2007) supports the implementation of non-formal TVET. Such a move offers a flexible curriculum, with variable entry requirements and programmes with short durations. Non-formal TVET is considered as a fast route to impart skills in post-conflict areas for the millions displaced and the many young people recruited as child soldiers. According to the African Union (2007), Rwanda is an example of a post-conflict country that has invested in non-formal VET imparting various skills to youths and adults. Apart from post-conflict areas, people in rural areas need vocational skills
98
in order to take control of their lives and engage in work to improve their living standards.
Hence, curriculum reform in VET should target giving rural people skills for self-employment, especially in agriculture (Cavanagh et al., 2013).
3.9.3.3.1 VET Responsiveness
In the past, VET was narrowly focused on contributing to economic development. This gave it a limited focus to market responsiveness. Marope et al. (2015) note that there has been a shift on the development paradigm, moving from economic development to a more holistic and humanistic approach to development (Sen, 1999). Sen’s approach underscored the importance of equity, empowerment and sustainability as key elements of development. Development has been broadened to become a multifaceted concept which goes beyond economic and material progress. In light of the expanded focus of development, VET systems have to adjust and broaden their scope beyond economic and offer a broader range of skills to serve a diverse population. The expanded scope of development also means that VET providers have to be expanded to include a variety of actors including public providers, private providers, NGOs, Community based organisations and youth organisations.. This thesis supports the need for a broadened VET system that also responds to non- labour market issues.
3.9.3.3.2 VET’s Contextual Responsiveness
The context in which VET is provided differs from one region to the other. Thus, VET provided in particular places has to be contextually relevant. In sub-Saharan Africa, for example, the VET system has to meet the demands of the following; the informal sector, the rural economy, and the needs of marginalised populations (Marope et al., 2015). The informal sector within Sub-Saharan Africa has become of high socio- economic importance and is fast growing in terms of job creation. VET entrepreneurship programmes have been expanded to respond to the needs of the informal sector. VET curricular have been expanded to include entrepreneurship which focuses on combining the acquisition of business and technical skills (Marope et al., 2015). The majority of people in developing countries live in rural areas and their livelihoods are mainly dependent on agriculture, whether directly or indirectly. In the majority of cases, people in rural areas have
99
limited access to education and training. The training needs for rural people are mainly in agriculture so as to increase agricultural productivity. Rural based VET providers, therefore, have to focus on providing agricultural skills in addition to other skills that enhance the wellbeing of rural populations leading to transformation and sustainability (Marope et al., 2015).
In rural India, for example, Community Polytechnics were established to ensure that rural areas benefit from education through imparting skills to rural populations.