This section reviews literature on VET policy and systems. The review is intended to show the level of development of VET globally as well as the position of Zimbabwe on the global VET map.
3.2.1 The purpose of Vocational Education and Training
The major purpose of VET at the international level has generally been agreed by scholars as that of providing the needed human capital in the form of manpower with the required skills for development and the reduction of poverty in nations (Eichorst, Rodriguez-Planas, Schmidl, &
Zimmermann, 2012; Sauffie, 2015). Lucas, Spencer, and Claxton (2012) argue that the overarching goal of vocational education is the development of working competence in a chosen
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vocational area, or enabling people to learn how to do things to a standard set by experts from the occupation into which they are progressing. In this regard vocational education differs from general education which is academic and therefore more theoretical and focuses on understanding concepts.
VET is viewed as an approach to increase economic competitiveness and reduce poverty in the triangle of productivity, employability and sustainable growth (Middleton, Ziderman, & Adams, 1993; Wallenborn, 2010). Apart from these three aspects, there has emerged a significant interest in the fourth aspect; responsiveness. The four main themes have continued to emerge and dominate in international VET discourse. This has been evidenced by numerous studies in the areas mentioned. Billet (2011), identifies four aspects that are central to most VET programmes;
these are the selection and preparation for a ‘vocation’ or occupation, the development of capacities to perform in the chosen occupation, the ongoing development to meet new demands in the workplace and the ability to transform individuals to engage in new areas of work.
The fourth purpose relates well to this current study in that some of the A1 farmers were new to farming, coming from other areas of specialization. Due to the diverse purposes of VET, it is offered differently, and by diverse institutions, from schools, universities, colleges such as poly- technical colleges, training centres and community centres depending on the part of the world one is in. Serven and Solimano (1993) note that VET seeks to link education and the labour market and even goes beyond that by having a broader vision in the design of VET systems and also focus on non-market issues. VET is not limited to creating employment; it can be used in transforming society including ensuring sustainability of other enterprises including farms by investing in the training of farmers (DFID, 1999).
In some countries, institutions such as community colleges and training centres offer VET, focusing on learners of low socio-economic status who are in need of skills for survival (Bosch
& Charest, 2008). Furthermore, diversity in VET is not only to do with providers but also includes the learners. The learners are mostly adults who vary in terms of their interests, motivation, and experience in line with characteristics of all adult learners (Jarvis, 2004). In Zimbabwe, VET seeks to give students skills for employment and self-employment (Mupinga,
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Burnett, & Redmann, 2005). The depth of content, however, depends on the level at which it is offered.
3.2.2 Global Vocational Education and Training systems
Vocational education is a field of study that focuses on developing capacities for working life.
Globally, VET is a key component for development in countries such as Australia, the United Kingdom, India and Germany. The literature reviewed in this section focuses on the major themes in VET, without specifically focusing on these individual countries mentioned. There is acknowledgement that these countries have managed to establish efficient and effective VET systems to provide for the skills requirements of their industries and commerce (Misko, 2006).
What is surprising is that there are fewer studies on vocational education and training on the African continent in comparison with other continents. This is articulated byMcGrath (2012c) who notes that in the South there has been a paucity of VET research and little in the way of theoretical exploration. This is in contrast to more serious academic engagement on vocational education in European countries. A few of the studies carried out on vocational education in Africa have revealed that as a development tool, VET has not been efficient and effective enough, despite the significant success it achieved in Asian countries (McGrath, 2011). The general guiding principles informing VET provision in these three countries are mostly similar with just a few differences. In Australia, the United Kingdom and Germany, vocational education seeks to offer relevant training for youth and adults in order to meet the labour requirements of industry.Misko (2006), in a review of VET literature for these countries, notes that there are three common pathways in provision of VET, namely; the school-based system, the apprenticeship system and the institutional pathway. This observation is also supported by Bosch and Charest (2008), who observe that unlike in general education, VET is not organised in a homogeneous system and may be provided by a variety of training institutions such as the state, NGOs, and private providers.
51 3.2.2.1 Institutional/School based VET
This refers to vocational education offered in schools, colleges and universities. Supporters of vocational education offered at primary and secondary schools argue that VET leads to social inclusion of disadvantaged students (Lauglo & McLean, 2005; Pavlova & Maclean, 2013).
Institutionally driven provision of vocational education is now expanding across the world in response to social and economic developments in Asian, African and South American countries.
Institutions play a critical role in the provision of VET in Australia, Germany and the United Kingdom. VET, in these countries, starts from the school system. Provision in these countries, however, is not uniform. In the United Kingdom system, for example, vocationalisation of the school curriculum is more evident, with secondary school students being introduced to vocational subjects. Upon completion of secondary education the students are ready for either apprenticeship training or Advanced Level studies and ultimately further education in universities (Billett, 2003).
In Germany, vocational education is introduced earlier in selected schools, whereas in Australia only students in the final year of secondary education complete an accredited VET course (Misko, 2006). The vocational curriculum in Germany is advised by the government but its interpretation is left to the respective training institutions. The German VET system is dualised and represents a responsive localised curriculum (Bauer & Gessler, 2016; Wedekind, 2017).
Germany’s VET system is dualised in a number of ways in the sense that it integrates theory and practice as well as have close partnership between business and government in the provision and funding of training programmes.
What is common, however, is that all three VET systems in these countries place an emphasis on the issue of labour market responsiveness and the employability of graduates. The Australian VET system is driven by labour market responsiveness. The main emphasis is to meet the needs of employers, hence, it utilises more decentralised competency based training (Dang, 2016;
Wedekind, 2017). At the centre of this competency based training is industry.
52 3.2.2.2 Apprenticeship system
The apprenticeship system is one of the oldest known forms of VET based on medieval guilds of western Europe (Katsande, 2016). According to (Tripney et al. (2013))apprenticeship training combines on-the-job training for a highly skilled craft or trade (from someone who is already a skilled leader in the field) with academic and or theoretical instruction, and ranges from informal work-based ‘learning-by-doing’ to formal structured programmes sponsored by large industrial firms.
The apprenticeship system is a key feature in VET in Australia, Germany and the United Kingdom. This training is provided for at the work place. Organisations seeking to offer apprenticeship programmes must be accredited by skills councils for the discipline concerned.
Apprenticeship focuses mainly on the development of employability skills and is more pronounced in Germany as compared to Australia and the United Kingdom. The dual German VET system allows entry into specific vocational streams from a young age, whereas in the other two countries the youth make their career choices at a much later stage (Bosch & Charest, 2008;
Terblanche, 2017).
In Zimbabwe, the apprenticeship system dates back to pre-colonial times evidenced by artifacts from the Rozvi and Munhumutapa empires (Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, 2005).
Technical education in Zimbabwe has links with the craft education of pre-colonial times; the difference is in the advanced technology used in the modern society. Its provision was in the form of apprenticeship in the classical sense. The apprentices of the time were mainly young men and women trained by their skilled senior kinsmen and kinswomen. The latter were the
“trainers”, experienced in various trades (Busia, 1968).
At independence in Zimbabwe, the apprenticeship system was revamped. This was done through the industrial training and trade testing system of 1981 which classified workers into Skilled Worker Class 4 to 1, Class 1 being the highest in the artisan grade (Nherera, 1994). Two approaches of artisan training were introduced, one that was through apprenticeship and the other through direct entry into college. Apprentices were recruited by private companies and needed at least four years to finish the programme. One of these years had to be spend at a college or
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polytechnic. Direct entry students do the same programme in three years, two of which are spent at the college or polytechnic and one on industrial attachment in commerce and industry. The entry qualifications for both modes remain at least 5 “O” level passes at grade C or higher, including English language, Maths and Science. All the trainees are trade tested leading to the award of a journeyman class (Nziramasanga, 1999). Apprenticeship programmes are generally more responsive to needs of employers than others since they are industry based (Dang, 2016).