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polytechnic. Direct entry students do the same programme in three years, two of which are spent at the college or polytechnic and one on industrial attachment in commerce and industry. The entry qualifications for both modes remain at least 5 “O” level passes at grade C or higher, including English language, Maths and Science. All the trainees are trade tested leading to the award of a journeyman class (Nziramasanga, 1999). Apprenticeship programmes are generally more responsive to needs of employers than others since they are industry based (Dang, 2016).
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skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship” (UNDP, 2016).
SDG4 is also central to the achievement of many other goals including Gender Equality, Decent Work and Economic Growth, Responsible Consumption and Production and Climate Change Mitigation. The SDG4 continues the EFA focus on quality basic education for all and broadens the agenda further to include concern for equitable access to post-basic education and training for youth and adults through equitable access to appropriate learning opportunities (UNDP, 2016).
3.3.2 UNESCO TVET strategy
In light of the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), and the end of EFA, the United Nations, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)introduced a Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET) strategy for 2016 to 2021 (UNESCO, 2016).The new TVET strategy aims to reflect the current social, economic, and environmental landscape which includes changes in technology, the labour market and skills patterns (UNESCO, 2016).
The strategy prioritises transformation of the TVET sector to maximise its potential to respond to these developments in the world economy. In view of these changes, there is a renewed sense of urgency and a need for the TVET to adapt, respond and transform itself to be relevant and valuable (UNESCO, 2016). The UNESCO TVET Strategy focuses on the following six key areas which are: Access to TVET, Quality of TVET provision, TVET Governance, Private sector involvement, TVET Institutions, and Funding. Improving the quality of TVET provision resonates well with Sustainable Development Goal number 4, the Education 2030, which seeks to ensure inclusive and equitable education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all (Doyle & Stiglitz, 2014; UNDP, 2016).Central to the UNESCO TVET Strategy is the responsiveness of the VET sector to changes in the labour market as well as other social and economic issues on a global level. It is thus of relevance to this study. The influence of the UNESCO TVET Strategy is also evident in the AU’s Continental Education Strategy for Africa as well as regional and country specific TVET strategies.
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3.3.3 The African Union’s Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA)
The AU adopted the Continental Education Strategy for Africa (CESA 2016-2025) in 2016 as the framework for a transformative education and training system in Africa. The strategy makes an explicit appeal to African countries to adopt policies that align with the CESA, including expanding VET opportunities at both secondary and tertiary levels and strengthening linkages between the world of work and education and training systems (African Union Commission, 2017). The CESA follows an earlier 2014 AU resolution that adopted a continental TVET Strategy, calling on member states to enhance support and investment for TVET as it was seen as fundamental for skills development for the youth, a means to promote employability and entrepreneurship through innovation and a way to align their national TVET strategies to the AU Continental TVET Strategy for effectiveness. Clearly, at the level of the continent, TVET is seen as being key to education and development (African Union Commission, 2017).
According to the African Union (2007), policy makers in Africa are increasingly aware of the critical role played by TVET in national development. This is reflected in most TVET systems that emphasise giving the youth employable skills. The majority of African TVET systems are school based and delivered at different levels of sophistication to make them more responsive to the needs of learners. Generally, TVET systems in Africa are offered by different institutions including both public and private technical and vocational schools such as polytechnics and through apprenticeship in industries (Oketch, 2016). There has also been a sharp increase in NGO provision of TVET across the continent. The colonial legacy is, however, apparent in these TVET systems. Former British colonies, for example, have systems which highly resemble the former colonial masters. This is also the case for general education. According to Nherera (2014), in most developing countries including the majority of African countries, attempts to vocationalise the school curriculum, especially at secondary school level has remained persistent.
This is the reason why there has been so much research on vocationalising the curriculum in countries such as Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, Zimbabwe and many others.
The African Union strategy promotes the development of non-formal modes of TVET, top on its priority being agriculture, followed by public health and water resources (UNESCO, 2013c). The
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implementation of non-formal TVET is for both governments and NGOs. In the Zimbabwean context non-formal TVET has given attention to agriculture in the context of the FTLRP. The policies explained above are unambiguous on the important role played by VET in development.
That is why in most countries there has been more recognition by policy makers and national governments of VET as a key strategy to address a range of social and political concerns, including but not limited to, growing youth unemployment, addressing stagnating economic growth, gender inequality and environmental concerns (UNESCO, 2016).